Editing Knowledge (section)

== Science ==
{{main|Philosophy of science}}
The scientific approach is usually regarded as an exemplary process of how to gain knowledge about empirical facts.<ref name="auto5">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ 115–118]|loc=11 Scientific Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=385}} }}</ref> Scientific knowledge includes mundane knowledge about easily observable facts, for example, [[chemical]] knowledge that certain reactants become hot when mixed together. It also encompasses knowledge of less tangible issues, like claims about the behavior of [[gene]]s, [[neutrino]]s, and [[black hole]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=386}}</ref>

A key aspect of most forms of science is that they seek natural laws that explain empirical observations.<ref name="auto5"/> Scientific knowledge is discovered and tested using the [[scientific method]].{{efn|It is controversial to what extent there is a single scientific method that applies equally to all sciences rather than a group of related approaches.<ref>{{harvnb|Hepburn|Andersen|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Overview and organizing themes}}</ref>}} This method aims to arrive at reliable knowledge by formulating the problem in a clear way and by ensuring that the evidence used to support or refute a specific theory is public, reliable, and replicable. This way, other researchers can repeat the experiments and observations in the initial study to confirm or disconfirm it.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=390}} |2={{harvnb|Hatfield|1998}} |3={{harvnb|Beins|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fBs0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} |4={{harvnb|Hepburn|Andersen|2021}} }}</ref> The scientific method is often analyzed as a series of steps that begins with regular observation and data collection. Based on these insights, scientists then try to find a [[hypothesis]] that explains the observations. The hypothesis is then tested using a controlled experiment to compare whether predictions based on the hypothesis match the observed results. As a last step, the results are interpreted and a conclusion is reached whether and to what degree the findings confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dodd|Zambetti|Deneve|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jXqAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11–12]}} | {{harvnb|Hatfield|1998}} | {{harvnb|Hepburn|Andersen|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 6.1 "The scientific method" in science education and as seen by scientists}} }}</ref>

The empirical sciences are usually divided into [[Natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s. The natural sciences, like [[physics]], [[biology]], and [[chemistry]], focus on [[quantitative research]] methods to arrive at knowledge about natural phenomena.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cohen|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hA7oCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR25 xxv]}} | {{harvnb|Myers|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lpEVEfnbx9cC&pg=PA8 8]}} | {{harvnb|Repko|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kDoYPVJONIoC&pg=PA200 200]}} }}</ref> Quantitative research happens by making precise numerical [[measurements]] and the natural sciences often rely on advanced technological [[Instrumentation|instruments]] to perform these measurements and to setup experiments. Another common feature of their approach is to use mathematical tools to [[Data analysis|analyze the measured data]] and formulate [[Scientific law|exact and general laws]] to describe the observed phenomena.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Repko|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kDoYPVJONIoC&pg=PA200 200]}} | {{harvnb|Hatfield|1998|loc=§ 3. Scientific Method in Scientific Practice}} | {{harvnb|Mertler|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-kMTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT100 100–101]}} | {{harvnb|Myers|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lpEVEfnbx9cC&pg=PA8 8]}} }}</ref>

The social sciences, like [[sociology]], [[anthropology]], and [[communication studies]], examine social phenomena on the level of human behavior, relationships, and society at large.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Colander|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JCMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|AHD Staff|2022d}} }}</ref> While they also make use of quantitative research, they usually give more emphasis to [[Qualitative research|qualitative methods]]. Qualitative research gathers non-numerical data, often with the goal of arriving at a deeper understanding of the meaning and interpretation of social phenomena from the perspective of those involved.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mertler|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-kMTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT88 88–89]}} | {{harvnb|Travers|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fEfmzvSg69oC&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> This approach can take various forms, such as [[Interview (research)|interviews]], [[focus groups]], and [[case studies]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howell|2013|pp=193–194}} | {{harvnb|Travers|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fEfmzvSg69oC&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Klenke|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_iqTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} }}</ref> [[Mixed-method research]] combines quantitative and qualitative methods to explore the same phenomena from a variety of perspectives to get a more comprehensive understanding.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schoonenboom|Johnson|2017|pp=107–108}} | {{harvnb|Shorten|Smith|2017|pp=74–75}} }}</ref>

The progress of scientific knowledge is traditionally seen as a gradual and continuous process in which the existing body of knowledge is increased at each step. This view has been challenged by some philosophers of science, such as [[Thomas Kuhn]], who holds that between phases of incremental progress, there are so-called scientific revolutions in which a [[paradigm shift]] occurs. According to this view, some basic assumptions are changed due to the paradigm shift, resulting in a radically new perspective on the body of scientific knowledge that is [[Commensurability (philosophy of science)|incommensurable]] with the previous outlook.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ 123–125]|loc=11 Scientific Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Niiniluoto|2019}} }}</ref>{{efn|It is controversial how radical the difference between paradigms is and whether they truly are incommensurable.<ref>{{harvnb|Bird|2022|loc=§ 6.2 Incommensurability}}</ref>}}

[[Scientism]] refers to a group of views that privilege the sciences and the scientific method over other forms of inquiry and knowledge acquisition. In its strongest formulation, it is the claim that there is no other knowledge besides scientific knowledge.<ref>{{harvnb|Plantinga|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iWBmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 222–223]}}</ref> A common critique of scientism, made by philosophers such as [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and [[Paul Feyerabend]], is that the fixed requirement of following the scientific method is too rigid and results in a misleading picture of reality by excluding various relevant phenomena from the scope of knowledge.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Flynn|2000|pp=83–84}} | {{harvnb|Clegg|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DYNYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14]}} | {{harvnb|Mahadevan|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LUX4TyOqWcwC&pg=PA91 91]}} | {{harvnb|Gauch|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA88 88]}} }}</ref>