Editing Mbula language (section)

==Syntax and word classes==
In an ideal grammar each classificatory word type would belong only to one category and in Mbula that is mostly the case. However, in the following three areas, word forms exist which are hard to nail down as one or the other:

#[[verbs]] and [[prepositions]]
#verbs and [[adverbs]]
#verbs and instrumental nouns

The occurrence of a form in a wide range of conversational environments can result in the gradual loss of morphological features which are not appropriate to some particular conversational environments as well as the morphological gain of features which are appropriate to other conversational environments. This can mean ultimately either category shift of a word class or even just the general greying of the word classes as iron-clad categories.

===Verbs and prepositions===
Prototypical verbs and prototypical prepositions exist along a cline with verbs at the start, prepositions at the end, and multicategoried word types in the middle:

#forms inflected with the subject prefixes which function syntactically only as [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]]s in sentences
#forms not inflected with the subject prefixes which syntactically function only as predicates in sentences (the uninflected verbs discussed below in verbs)
#forms potentially exhibiting subject agreement inflection which function syntactically as both predicates in sentences and in serial constructions (the prepositional verbs discussed below)
#forms never exhibiting inflection and which function syntactically only as prepositions

===Verbs and adverbs===
Prototypical verbs and adverbs exist along a cline with verbs at the start, adverbs at the end and multicategoried word types in the middle:

#inflected verbs which never occur as modifiers within the predicate phrase and never occur in cosubordinate adverbial predications
#inflected verbs which never occur as modifiers within the predicate phrase, and can occur in either a preceding or following cosubordinate adverbial predication
#uninflected verbs which never occur as modifiers within the predicate phrase, but which can occur in either a preceding or following cosubordinate adverbial predication
#forms which can occur as modifiers in the predicate phrase after the object or occur as uninflected verbs in an adjacent cosubordinate adverbial predication
#forms which occur immediately after the object and never function as predicates in an adjacent cosubordinate adverbial construction
#forms which can occur immediately after the predicate and never function as a predicate in an adjacent cosubordinate adverbial construction

===Verbs and instrumental nouns===
Verbs and instrumental nouns crossover in that verbs theoretically derived from these nouns appear in an identical form. I.e., there is no overt morphological derivation which might indicate what direction the derivation has occurred in. Examples include:

* {{Lang|mna|didi}} – 'wall'
* {{Lang|mna|-didi}} – 'to wall in'
* {{lang|mna|peeze}} – 'paddle'
* {{lang|mna|-peeze}} – 'to paddle'
* {{Lang|mna|kor}} – implement for sweeping
* {{Lang|mna|-kor}} – 'to sweep up' using this implement
* {{Lang|mna|ris}} – 'a line'
* {{Lang|mna|-ris}} – 'to draw a line'

===Nouns===
There is no syntactic distinction between nouns and adjectives in Mbula. Nouns are syntactically distinguished by the following three characteristics:

#They may function 'in isolation' (i.e. without any further syntactic modification) as arguments in a predication, a property that distinguishes them from non-inflecting stative verbs.
#When functioning as the heads of noun phrases, nouns occur phrase initially with all modifiers following.
#A subclass of nouns is morphologically distinguished by being obligatorily inflected with a set of genitive suffixes.

There are eight semantic features of noun referents which are especially important for characterising the morphosyntactic behaviour of Mbula nouns:

#human referent
#animate referent
#potent (the referent of the noun can be viewed as the ultimate cause of some process which affects another entity)
#concrete (the noun can potentially refer to a physical location to which, at which, or from which an event takes place)
#temporal (the noun may be used to delineate the time at which an event takes place)
#potentially consumable (the referent of the noun can be eaten or drunk)
#individuated/count (the referent of the noun may be easily separated from its environment and may not be divided without changing its essential nature/character)
#[[alienability (linguistics)|inalienable]] genitive (the referent of the item is inherently associated with some other entity)

===Pronouns===
Pronouns make the following person/number distinctions.

*1 singular
*1 dual exclusive
*1 dual inclusive
*1 plural exclusive
*1 plural inclusive
*2 singular
*2 dual
*2 plural
*3 singular
*3 dual
*3 plural

Pronouns also inflect for [[nominative]], [[accusative]], referent and [[locative]] cases. Most pronouns are composed of an initial case marker plus a person-number marker. The nominative series of pronouns is generally used to encode animate participants which function as subjects. There are three demonstrative pronouns: {{Lang|mna|ingi}} ('this one, these ones'), {{Lang|mna|ina}} ('that one, those ones') and {{Lang|mna|inga}} ('that one over there, those ones over there'). Accusative pronouns encode animate participants which function as objects. The referent pronouns encode virtually any animate [[oblique argument]]. Locative pronouns indicate an animate location toward which an action is taking place in dynamic predications, or at which an item is located. The locative form is also used to encode possession. [[Interrogative]] pronouns such as who, when, where, operate in a replacement fashion. That is, the interrogative pronoun is used in place of the normal syntactic position of the item being questioned.

===Verbs===
The characteristic syntactic function of verbs is to act as the heads of predications in which they occur. They are defined by a number of properties:

#They typically index the person and number of the subject of the sentence.
#They may contain transitivity-altering prefixes.
#They may not function as noun-phrase modifiers in certain frames.

====Uninflected verbs====
There are several categories of non-inflecting verbs in Mbula:

#stative experiential verbs
#stative verbs encoding properties
#verbs of manner
#aspectual verbs

All of these non-inflecting verbs function only as predicates in clauses. Thus they cannot function as heads of noun phrases and they cannot function as restrictive modifiers of nouns unless they are relativised or nominalised. Syntactically, they resemble inflected verbs. They are only distinguished from other verbs morphologically.

===Adverbials===
This class is called ''[[adverbial]]s'' and not ''adverbs'' because Mbula contains a large collection of words which are defined as modifiers of constituents other than nouns. Semantically, such forms typically encode notions of time, aspect, manner and modality.

===Quantifiers===
[[Quantifiers (linguistics)|Quantifiers]] are uninflected forms which always occur in noun phrases following nouns, locative/alienable genitive pronouns, and attributive stative nouns, but before determiners, locative/alienable genitive prepositional phrases, relative clauses and demonstratives. The Mbula counting system is based upon the notions of five and twenty.

===Prepositions===
Prepositions are generally uninflected forms which govern a single noun phrase complement and relate it to a head or predicate. Mbula employs five categories of prepositions:

#the referent preposition {{lang|mna|-pa-}} used for oblique arguments
#the locative preposition {{lang|mna|-ki-}} used for animate goals towards which some entity moves, sites at which some entity is located and body parts which perceive something
#the preposition {{lang|mna|-kembei-}} used to express resemblance, similarity or approximate equality (i.e., like, as)
#the comitative and manner prepositions {{lang|mna|-ramaki-/-raama-}} used for accompaniment and manner
#prepositional verbs discussed below

====Prepositional verbs====
These forms are a set of optionally inflected verbs which occur in serialisations functioning as case markers. As they may potentially contain inflection for third person singular in these serialisations, they depart from the typical uninflected preposition. However, they retain the prepositional function of relating a dependent noun phrase to a verbal head.

===Demonstratives===
====Historical demonstratives and deictic expressions====
Regarding the [[deictic]] term for 'that, there', there does not seem to be a major change in the pronunciation of the term in Mangap-Mbula ({{Lang|mna|ina}}) from [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language|Proto-Malayo Polynesian]] (PMP; {{Lang|mis|*i-na}}). However, the context in which {{Lang|mna|ina}} is used has narrowed, as it is used [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphorically]] to mean 'that'.<ref name="Cognate Sets - N"/>

====Morpho-syntactic features====
''Demonstrative pronouns and spatial deictic expressions''<br>
Mangap-Mbula has three different free [[Demonstrative|demonstrative pronouns]] which do not differentiate between [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]:

{| {{table}}
|+ Table 1. Demonstratives.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}}
|-
| {{lang|mna|iŋgi}} || this one/these ones
|-
| {{lang|mna|ina}} || that one/those ones
|-
| {{lang|mna|iŋga}} || that one over there, those ones over there
|}

In Example 1,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}} {{lang|mna|iŋgi}} is a free demonstrative used situationally and functions as a modifier of a singular noun phrase, as it is introducing the 'younger brother'. Additionally, {{lang|mna|iŋgi}} also has two other functions. The first is as the [[Adverbial phrase|modal adverb]] meaning 'this is true now', and the second as a [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] part of the demonstratives {{lang|mna|tiŋgi}} and {{lang|mna|taiŋgi}}.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|iŋgi nio tizi-ŋ.
|this.one NOM.1SG younger.sibling-GEN.1SG
|This is my younger brother.
|lang=mna}}

{{lang|mna|Ina}} functions similarly to the third person [[pronoun]]s {{lang|mna|ni}} and {{lang|mna|zin}}. It is frequently being used to refer to non-humans, and its main function is to reestablish a participant, who has already been introduced, as a topic or to single them out.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}} In Example 2,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}} {{lang|mna|ina}} is referring to two non-human, singular entities: the wallaby and the tree kangaroo. As the direct translation for each of these entities were not mentioned here, it can be inferred that they are both used anaphorically.

{{interlinear|lang=mna|number=(2)
|Wa ma la ma so{{=}}be me ti-se ki ta-sa na, reo. Pa ina, so{{=}}be me mboŋ, to-na ti-kam{{=}}i. Mi so{{=}}be me tau napumon{{=}}i na, ina i-rao ti-kam{{=}}i som.
|2SG+walk+RED and 2SG+go and say{{=}}NF dog 3PL-ascend LOC SPEC-{{gcl|NON.REF|non-referential}} GIV 2SG+look for that.on say{{=}}NF dog hunter then-GIV 3PL-get{{=}}ACC.3SG and say{{=}}NF dog SPEC bad.hunter{{=}}PROX GIV that.one 3SG-able 3PL-get{{=}}ACC.3SG NEG
|You keep walking until the dogs happen to come upon one (a wallaby), and then look out. For it ({{=}}the wallaby), he dogs, if they are good hunters, then they will get it. But if they are bad hunters, then it (the tree kangaroo), they will not be able to get it.
}}

In Example 3,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}} {{lang|mna|iŋga}} is a free demonstrative used situationally and conveys two pieces of information: (1) the entity to which it is referring to, and (2) its location in reference to the speaker (i.e. a place adverb).

{{interlinear|number=(3)
|Iŋga i-kaam so?
|that.one.over.there 3SG-do+RED what
|What is that one/thing over there doing?
|lang=mna}}

''Locative adverbial forms''<br>
In Mangap-Mbula, there are no differences between [[Deixis|deictic expressions]] that denote [[noun phrase]]s and ones that denote location in sentences. Thus, they are considered as being a single form class.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=154}}

{{interlinear|number=(4)
|Ti-kam uraata taŋga.
|3PL-do work over.there
|They worked over there.
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(5)
|Ruumu taŋga i-saana kek.
|house over.there 3SG-deteriorate PERF
|That house over there is ruined.
|lang=mna}}

In Examples 4 and 5,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=154}} {{lang|mna|taŋga}} is used situationally as a place adverb for where a group of people work and where in relation to the speaker, is the house located, respectively.

''Problems with [[Preposition and postposition|prepositions]]''

{{interlinear|number=(6)
|Zin ti-kam uraata taŋga
|NOM.3PL 3PL-do work over.there
|They worked
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(7)
|Zin ti-kam uraata meleebe
|NOM.3PL 3PL-do work below
|They worked
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(8)
|Zin ti-kam uraata pa lele toro
|NOM.3PL 3PL-do work in another place
|They worked
|lang=mna}}

Examples 6, 7, and 8{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=155}} demonstrate that the demonstrative {{lang|mna|taŋga}} and the adverbial {{lang|mna|meleebe}} are [[Semantics|semantically]] and positionally similar to the preposition phrase {{lang|mna|pa lele toro}}. This resemblance suggests that both could potentially fall under the same category of prepositional phrases, which further suggests that prepositions could be split into a [[Transitive verb|transitive]] (location adverbs and demonstratives) and [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]] (true prepositions) sub-category.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=155}} However, viewing things this way could have two issues: (1) the adverbial {{lang|mna|meleebe}} would have to be left as being noun phrase modifiers, but this could be due to the semantics; (2) the noun phrase shows the demonstrative occurring after the 'true' prepositiona' phrase with the noun phrase complement. But if both are deemed as coming from the [[Syntax|syntactic]] group, why then would there be an ordering restriction? As a result of these problems, a demonstrative form class is recognised.

''Noun phrases''

{{interlinear|number=(9)
|man tatariigi ta-na
|bird chicken SPEC-GIV
|that chicken
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(10)
|moori sa ta-na
|female {{gcl|NON.REF|non-referential}} SPEC.GIV
|that (hypothetical) woman (about whom I am talking)
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(11)
|ke ta nu mbotmbot pa ta-na
|tree SPEC NOM.2SG 2SG+stay+RED REF SPEC-GIV
|that tree where you are staying
|lang=mna}}

In the examples given above,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|pp=199, 200}} {{lang|mna|ta-na}} is used situationally as a [[determiner]] for either the chicken (Example 9), the woman (Example 10) or the tree (Example 11). {{lang|mna|Ta}} refers to the specific entity (i.e. 'that'), and {{lang|mna|na}} refers to the entity that has already been revealed in the sentence. In Example 10 however, the woman is not present situationally, but is referred to hypothetically.

There are two functions of {{lang|mna|tana}}: (1) as a demonstrative, or (2) to convey reason-result sequences. They are [[homophone]]s. The demonstrative denotes (1) entities that are accessible or nearby the speaker and (2) textually revealed participants.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=296}}

''Motion [[verb]]s''

Similar to many other Oceanic languages, Mangap-Mbula makes a three-way distinction depending on relative space: near speaker, near hearer or near neither.{{sfn|Ross|2004|p=177}} This sense of deictic orientation can be conveyed in motion verbs through the use of [[suffix]]es. These verbs often compound the [[Root (linguistics)|root]] (which states the spatial positioning of motion) and the deictic orientation of motion in regards to the speaker and listener.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=168}} This is shown in Table 2.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=168}}

{| {{table}}
|+ Table 2. Motion verb stems.
|-
! || Towards Speaker || Towards Hearer, not Towards Speaker || Towards neither Speaker nor Hearer
|-
| unoriented || {{lang|mna|-mar}} || {{lang|mna|-ma}} || {{lang|mna|-la}}
|-
| up || {{lang|mna|-se}} || {{lang|mna|-sa -ma}} || {{lang|mna|-sa-la}}
|-
| down || {{lang|mna|-su}} || {{lang|mna|-su -ma}} || {{lang|mna|-su-la}}
|-
| inwards || {{lang|mna|-le}} || {{lang|mna|-le -ma}} || {{lang|mna|-le-la}}
|-
| outwards || {{lang|mna|-pet}} || {{lang|mna|-pet-ma}} || {{lang|mna|-pe-ra}}
|}

These are some examples:{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=168}}

{{interlinear|number=(12)
|Ni ko i-su.
|NOM.3SG UC 3SG-descend
|He will come down to me.
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(13)
|Nio ko aŋ-ma Mande.
|NOM.1SG UC 1SG-come.to.you Monday
|I will come to you on Monday.
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(14)
|Nio ko aŋ-su-ma.
|NOM.1SG UC 1SG-descend-come.to.you
|I will come down to you.
|lang=mna}}

These are all examples of [[Bound and free morphemes|bound]] deictic morphemes.

====Aerial comparison====

Other [[Oceanic languages]] which share the same pronunciation for the term {{lang|mna|ina}} (meaning 'that, there') have a slightly different meaning, such as [[Suau language|Suau]] and [[Motu language|Motu]], where {{lang|swp|ina}} means 'this', and Chuukese, where {{lang|chk|ina}} means 'there it is (by you)'.<ref name="Cognate Sets - N">{{Cite web|url=http://ling.lll.hawaii.edu/dicts/ACD/acd-s_n1.htm#27184|title = ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Cognate Sets - N}}</ref> There are also other Oceanic languages with a closer meaning to Mangap-Mbula's {{lang|mna|ina}}, but have an additional sound at the beginning. They are [[Dobuan language|Dobuan]] (where {{lang|dob|n-ina}} means 'that') and [[Nakanamanga language|Nakanamanga]] (where {{lang|llp|wa-ina}} means 'that (distant)').<ref name="Cognate Sets - N"/>

Mangap-Mbula is a noun-demonstrative order language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wals.info/feature/88A#7/-6.697/148.160|title = WALS Online - Feature 88A: Order of Demonstrative and Noun}}</ref> This order is usual for neighbouring languages in the [[Morobe Province]], such as [[Sio language|Sio]] and [[Selepet language|Selepet]], as well as in [[West New Britain Province|West New Britain]], such as Maleu and [[Amara language|Amara]]. Examples 9, 10 and 11 demonstrate this lexical ordering.

===Complementizers===
Complementisers are uninflected forms which only govern a following sentence. The combination of a complementiser and a following sentence becomes the constituent in a noun or predicate phrase. Mbula contains seven types of complementiser:

#{{lang|mna|kokena}} – lest (I don't want this to happen)
#{{lang|mna|be}} ~ nothing – non-presupposition of factuality (I do not say this is something which has happened)
#{{lang|mna|(ta)kembei}} – like (I think like this)
#nothing – asserted factuality (I say this is something which has happened or is happening)
#{{lang|mna|ta(u)}} ~ nothing – presupposed factuality (I know that this is something which has happened and I think you know about it too)
#{{lang|mna|tabe}} – presupposed non-factuality (I know that this is something which has not happened and I think you know about it)
#{{lang|mna|ki}} – habitual event (This is the kind of thing that is always happening)

===Conjunctions===
There are a great deal of [[Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]] in Mbula that each encode their own subtly different meaning. However, all conjunctions fall broadly into four categories: temporal conjunctions, conditional conjunctions, causal conjunctions and disjunctions.

===Interjections===
There are a number of [[interjections]] in Mbula, all of which play no role in the grammar of the language, but which function to convey the speaker's attitudes and intentions. They always occur sentence initially and include the following examples:

*{{lang|mna|a}} – I want to say something
*{{lang|mna|ais}} – I want something
*{{lang|mna|ha}} – I hear something, I don't know what it is
*{{lang|mna|ii}} – I don't know
*{{lang|mna|lak}} – I want to ask you something
*{{lang|mna|som}} – I do not agree with you
*{{lang|mna|yo(o)}} – I say you did something good
*{{lang|mna|ywe}} – I think you are bad