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Power distance
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==== The relationship between leadership and voice behavior ==== The ability for employees to speak up is described as their voice behavior and expression, which is dependent upon the leadership style as well as the power distance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Sheng-min |last2=Liao |first2=Jian-qiao |title=Transformational Leadership and Speaking Up: Power Distance and Structural Distance as Moderators |journal=Social Behavior and Personality|date=1 November 2013 |volume=41 |issue=10 |pages=1747–1756 |doi=10.2224/sbp.2013.41.10.1747 }}</ref> Sheng-Min Liu and Jian-Qiao Liao developed a questionnaire that asked 495 subordinates (engineers) and 164 leaders (senior engineers and project managers) to determine the outcome of subordinate voice behavior based on the leadership style, which is influenced by power distance because of the closeness in proximity and structure of those cultures. The study finds that low power distance leaders facilitate a change-oriented environment for subordinates to discuss their ideas and concerns which leads to their admiration. The study finds that in high power distance businesses, subordinates obey the gap between them and their leaders, and rarely interact with their superiors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farh |first1=Jiing-Lih |last2=Hackett |first2=Rick D. |last3=Liang |first3=Jian |title=Individual-Level Cultural Values as Moderators of Perceived Organizational Support–Employee Outcome Relationships in China: Comparing the Effects of Power Distance and Traditionality |journal=Academy of Management Journal |date=June 2007 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=715–729 |doi=10.5465/amj.2007.25530866 }}</ref> The study further confirms that the ideas and solutions in this power index are given to them by their leaders, so it seems contradictory for those in the high-power distance to speak up about their concerns or ideas because they are accustomed to direction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirkman |first1=Bradley L. |last2=Chen |first2=Gilad |last3=Farh |first3=Jiing-Lih |last4=Chen |first4=Zhen Xiong |last5=Lowe |first5=Kevin B. |title=Individual Power Distance Orientation and Follower Reactions to Transformational Leaders: A Cross-Level, Cross-Cultural Examination |journal=Academy of Management Journal |date=August 2009 |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=744–764 |doi=10.5465/amj.2009.43669971 }}</ref> The contradiction of the high-power index shows that it weakens the leader–subordinate relationship causing a lack of expression. Thus, voice behavior and expression rely on the transformational leadership style often seen in low power distance cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walumbwa |first1=Fred Ochieng |last2=Lawler |first2=John J. |title=Building effective organizations: transformational leadership, collectivist orientation, work-related attitudes and withdrawal behaviours in three emerging economies |journal=The International Journal of Human Resource Management |date=1 November 2003 |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=1083–1101 |doi=10.1080/0958519032000114219 |s2cid=154065859 }}</ref> The study concludes that the leadership style which is based on power distance culture correlates with the tools given to an employee to speak up in his or her environment.
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