Editing Unification of Italy (section)

==Revolutions of 1848–1849 and First Italian War of Independence==
{{Main|Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|First Italian War of Independence}}
[[File:Fratelli Bandiera.jpg|thumb|left|Execution of the [[Bandiera Brothers]]]]

In 1844, two brothers from [[Venice]], [[Bandiera Brothers|Attilio and Emilio Bandiera]], members of [[Young Italy]], planned to make a raid on the [[Calabria]]n coast against the [[Kingdom of Two Sicilies]] in support of Italian unification. They assembled a band of about twenty men ready to sacrifice their lives and set sail on their venture on 12 June 1844. Four days later they landed near [[Crotone]], intending to go to [[Cosenza]], liberate the political prisoners, and issue their proclamations. Tragically for the Bandiera brothers, they did not find the insurgent band they were told awaited them, so they moved towards [[La Sila]]. They were ultimately betrayed by one of their party, the [[Corsica]]n Pietro Boccheciampe, and by some peasants who believed them to be Turkish pirates. A detachment of [[Gendarmerie|gendarmes]] and volunteers were sent against them, and after a short fight, the whole band was taken prisoner and escorted to Cosenza, where a number of Calabrians who had taken part in a previous rising were also under arrest. The Bandiera brothers and their nine companions were executed by firing squad; some accounts state they cried "''Viva l'Italia!''" ('Long live Italy!') as they fell. The moral effect was enormous throughout Italy, the action of the authorities was universally condemned, and the martyrdom of the Bandiera brothers bore fruit in the subsequent revolutions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1345637/Bandiera-brothers|title=Bandiera brothers|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Image-Inno di Mameli 2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Holograph]]ic copy of 1847 of ''[[Il Canto degli Italiani]]'', the Italian [[national anthem]] since 1946]]
In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song ''[[Il Canto degli Italiani]]'', the Italian [[national anthem]] since 1946, took place.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Maiorino |first1=Tarquinio|last2=Marchetti Tricamo|first2=Giuseppe |last3=Zagami |first3=Andrea |title=Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera|year=2002 |publisher=Arnoldo Mondadori Editore|language=it|isbn=978-88-04-50946-2|page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.quirinale.it/page/inno|title=Fratelli d'Italia|access-date=1 October 2021|language=it}}</ref> ''Il Canto degli Italiani'', written by [[Goffredo Mameli]] set to music by [[Michele Novaro]], is also known as the ''Inno di Mameli'', after the author of the lyrics, or ''Fratelli d'Italia'', from its [[incipit|opening line]].

On 5 January 1848, the revolutionary disturbances began with a civil disobedience strike in [[Lombardy]], as citizens stopped smoking cigars and playing the [[lottery]], which denied Austria the associated tax revenue. Shortly after this, revolts began on the island of [[Sicily]] and in [[Naples]]. In Sicily the revolt resulted in the proclamation of the [[Sicilian revolution of 1848|Kingdom of Sicily]] with [[Ruggero Settimo]] as chairman of the independent state until 1849, when the Bourbon army took back full control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/twosicil.htm|title=Two Sicilies, Kingdom of, 1848–49|publisher=Ohio.edu|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Ruggero Settimo.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ruggero Settimo]]]]
In February 1848, there were revolts in [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]] that were relatively nonviolent, after which Grand Duke [[Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Leopold II]] granted the Tuscans a constitution. A breakaway republican provisional government formed in Tuscany during February shortly after this concession. On 21 February, [[Pope Pius IX]] granted a constitution to the Papal States, which was both unexpected and surprising considering the historical recalcitrance of the Papacy. On 23 February 1848, King Louis Philippe of France was forced to flee [[Paris]], and the [[Second French Republic]] was proclaimed. By the time the revolution in Paris occurred, three states of Italy had constitutions—four if one considers Sicily to be a separate state.

Meanwhile, in Lombardy, tensions increased until the Milanese and Venetians rose in revolt on 18 March 1848. The insurrection in Milan succeeded in expelling the Austrian garrison after five days of street fights—18–22 March ([[Five Days of Milan|Cinque giornate di Milano]]). An Austrian army under Marshal [[Josef Radetzky]] besieged Milan, but due to the defection of many of his troops and the support of the Milanese for the revolt, they were forced to retreat to the [[Quadrilatero]] fortresses.

Soon, [[Charles Albert of Sardinia|Charles Albert]], the King of Sardinia (who ruled Piedmont and [[Savoy]]), urged by the Venetians and Milanese to aid their cause, decided this was the moment to unify Italy and declared war on Austria ([[First Italian Independence War]]). After initial successes at [[Battle of Goito|Goito]] and [[Peschiera del Garda|Peschiera]], he was decisively defeated by Radetzky at the [[Battle of Custoza (1848)|Battle of Custoza]] on 24 July. An armistice was agreed to, and Radetzky regained control of all of [[Lombardy–Venetia]] save [[Venice]] itself, where the [[Republic of San Marco]] was proclaimed under [[Daniele Manin]].
[[File:Daniele Manin Repubblica di Venezia.jpg|thumb|left|[[Daniele Manin]] and [[Niccolò Tommaseo]] after the proclamation of the Republic of San Marco]]

While Radetzky consolidated control of Lombardy–Venetia and Charles Albert licked his wounds, matters took a more serious turn in other parts of Italy. The monarchs who had reluctantly agreed to constitutions in March came into conflict with their constitutional ministers. At first, the republics had the upper hand, forcing the monarchs to flee their capitals, including Pope Pius IX.

Initially, Pius IX had been something of a reformer, but conflicts with the revolutionaries soured him on the idea of constitutional government. In November 1848, following the assassination of his Minister [[Pellegrino Rossi]], Pius IX fled just before [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] and other patriots arrived in Rome. In early 1849, elections were held for a Constituent Assembly, which proclaimed a [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] on 9 February. On 2 February 1849, at a political rally held in the Apollo Theater, a young Roman priest, the Abbé [[Carlo Arduini]], had made a speech in which he had declared that the [[Temporal power of the Holy See]] was a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality".{{sfn|Ridley|1976|p=268}} In early March 1849, [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] arrived in Rome and was appointed Chief Minister. In the Constitution of the Roman Republic,<ref>Full text of the constitution can be found at:
<br />
{{cite web|title=Costituzione della Repubblica Romana (1849)|url=http://www.domusmazziniana.it/materiali/costirep.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209045329/http://www.domusmazziniana.it/materiali/costirep.htm|archive-date=9 February 2009|language=it}}
<br />
{{cite web|title=Costituzione della Repubblica Romana, 1849|url=http://www.liberliber.it/mediateca/libri/r/repubblica_romana_1849/costituzione_della_repubblica_etc/pdf/costit_p.pdf|work=Liberliber website|access-date=19 March 2012|language=it}}</ref> religious freedom was guaranteed by article 7, the independence of the pope as head of the [[Catholic Church]] was guaranteed by article 8 of the ''Principi fondamentali'', while the death penalty was abolished by article 5, and free public education was provided by article 8 of the ''Titolo I''.

Before the powers could respond to the founding of the Roman Republic, Charles Albert, whose army had been trained by the exiled Polish general [[Albert Chrzanowski]], renewed the war with Austria. He was quickly defeated by Radetzky at [[Battle of Novara (1849)|Novara]] on 23 March 1849. Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son, [[Victor Emmanuel II]], and Piedmontese ambitions to unite Italy or conquer Lombardy were, for the moment, brought to an end. The war ended with a treaty signed on 9 August. A popular revolt broke out in [[Ten Days of Brescia|Brescia]] on the same day as the defeat at Novara, but was suppressed by the Austrians ten days later.{{fact|date=April 2025}}

There remained the Roman and [[Republic of San Marco|Venetian]] Republics. In April, a French force under [[Charles Oudinot]] was sent to Rome. Apparently, the French first wished to mediate between the pope and his subjects, but soon the French were determined to restore the pope. After a two-month siege, Rome capitulated on 29 June 1849 and the pope was restored. Garibaldi and Mazzini once again fled into exile—in 1850 Garibaldi went to [[New York City]]. Meanwhile, the Austrians besieged Venice, which was defended by a volunteer army led by [[Daniele Manin]] and [[Guglielmo Pepe]], who were forced to surrender on 24 August. Pro-independence fighters were [[Belfiore martyrs|hanged en masse in Belfiore]], while the Austrians moved to restore order in central Italy, restoring the princes who had been expelled and re-establishing Papal control over the Legations. The revolutions were thus completely crushed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/ip/manin.htm|title=Daniele Manin|publisher=Ohio.edu|access-date=30 September 2014|archive-date=11 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311021746/https://www.ohio.edu/chastain/ip/manin.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Cavour and prospects for unification===
[[File:Garibaldiecavour.JPG|thumb|upright|Garibaldi and Cavour making Italy in a satirical cartoon of 1861]]
Morale was of course badly weakened, but the dream of Risorgimento did not die. Instead, the Italian patriots learned some lessons that made them much more effective at the next opportunity in 1860. Military weakness was glaring, as the small Italian states were completely outmatched by France and Austria.

France was a potential ally, and the patriots realized they had to focus all their attention on expelling Austria first, with a willingness to give the French whatever they wanted in return for essential military intervention. As a result of this France received Nice and Savoy in 1860. Secondly, the patriots realized that the pope was an enemy, and could never be the leader of a united Italy. Thirdly, they realized that republicanism was too weak a force. Unification had to be based on a strong monarchy, and in practice that meant reliance on Piedmont (the [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Sardinia]]) under King [[Victor Emmanuel II]] (1820–1878) of the [[House of Savoy]].

[[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour]] (1810–1861) provided critical leadership. He was a modernizer interested in agrarian improvements, banks, railways and free trade. He opened a newspaper as soon as censorship allowed it: ''[[Il Risorgimento (newspaper)|Il Risorgimento]]'' called for the independence of Italy, a league of Italian princes, and moderate reforms. He had the ear of the king and in 1852 became prime minister. He ran an efficient active government, promoting rapid economic modernization while upgrading the administration of the army and the financial and legal systems. He sought out support from patriots across Italy.

In 1855, the kingdom became an ally of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[Second French Empire|France]] in the [[Crimean War]], which gave Cavour's diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dal Lago |first1=Enrico |title=Lincoln, Cavour, and National Unification: American Republicanism and Italian Liberal Nationalism in Comparative Perspective |journal=The Journal of the Civil War Era |date=2013 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=85–113 |doi=10.1353/cwe.2013.0017 |id={{Project MUSE|499081}} |jstor=26062022 }}</ref><ref>William L. Langer, ed., ''An Encyclopedia of World History''. 4th ed. 1968. pp 704–707.</ref>
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