Editing Vampire (section)

=== Non-European beliefs ===
Beings having many of the attributes of European vampires appear in the folklore of Africa, Asia, North and South America, and India. Classified as vampires, all share the thirst for blood.<ref name=attwater>{{cite journal|author=Atwater, Cheryl|year=2000|title=Living in Death: The Evolution of Modern Vampirism|journal=Anthropology of Consciousness|volume=11|issue=1–2|pages=70–77|doi=10.1525/ac.2000.11.1-2.70}}</ref>

==== Africa ====
Various regions of Africa have folktales featuring beings with vampiric abilities: in [[West Africa]] the [[Ashanti people]] tell of the iron-toothed and tree-dwelling ''[[asanbosam]]'',{{sfn|Bunson|1993|p=11}} and the [[Ewe people]] of the ''[[adze (folklore)|adze]],'' which can take the form of a [[firefly]] and hunts children.{{sfn|Bunson|1993|p=2}} The eastern [[Cape Peninsula|Cape]] region has the ''[[impundulu]],'' which can take the form of a large taloned bird and can summon thunder and lightning, and the [[Betsileo]] people of [[Madagascar]] tell of the ''ramanga'', an outlaw or living vampire who drinks the blood and eats the nail clippings of nobles.{{sfn|Bunson|1993|p=219}} In colonial East Africa, rumors circulated to the effect that employees of the state such as firemen and nurses were vampires, known in Swahili as ''wazimamoto''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=White|first=Luise|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/9780520922297|title=Speaking with Vampires|date=31 December 2000|publisher=University of California Press|doi=10.1525/9780520922297|isbn=978-0-520-92229-7|s2cid=258526552 |access-date=15 December 2020|archive-date=15 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715155012/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520922297/html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Americas ====
The ''[[Rougarou]]'' is an example of how a vampire belief can result from a combination of beliefs, here a mixture of French and African Vodu or [[West African Vodun|voodoo]]. The term ''Rougarou'' possibly comes from the French {{lang|fr|[[loup-garou]]}} (meaning "werewolf") and is common in the [[culture of Mauritius]]. The stories of the ''Rougarou'' are widespread through the [[Caribbean Islands]] and [[Louisiana]] in the United States.{{sfn|Bunson|1993|pp=162–163}} Similar female monsters are the ''[[Soucouyant]]'' of [[Trinidad]], and the ''[[Tunda]]'' and ''[[Patasola]]'' of [[Colombian folklore]], while the [[Mapuche]] of southern [[Chile]] have the bloodsucking snake known as the ''[[Peuchen]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martinez Vilches, Oscar|title=Chiloe Misterioso: Turismo, Mitologia Chilota, leyendas|year=1992|page=179|publisher=Ediciones de la Voz de Chiloe|location=Chile|oclc=33852127|language=es}}</ref> ''[[Aloe vera]]'' hung backwards behind or near a door was thought to ward off vampiric beings in South American folklore.<ref name=Jaramillo/> [[Aztec mythology]] described tales of the [[Cihuateteo]], skull-faced spirits of those who died in childbirth who stole children and entered into sexual liaisons with the living, driving them mad.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/>

During the late 18th and 19th centuries the belief in vampires was [[New England vampire panic|widespread in parts of New England]], particularly in [[Rhode Island]] and eastern [[Connecticut]]. There are many documented cases of families disinterring loved ones and removing their hearts in the belief that the deceased was a vampire who was responsible for sickness and death in the family, although the term "vampire" was never used to describe the dead. The deadly disease [[tuberculosis]], or "consumption" as it was known at the time, was believed to be caused by nightly visitations on the part of a dead family member who had died of consumption themselves.<ref name=sledzik>{{cite journal|last=Sledzik|first=Paul S.|author2=Nicholas Bellantoni|year=1994|title=Bioarcheological and biocultural evidence for the New England vampire folk belief|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=94|issue=2|pages=269–274|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330940210 |pmid=8085617}}</ref> The most famous, and most recently recorded, case of suspected vampirism is that of nineteen-year-old [[Mercy Brown]], who died in [[Exeter, Rhode Island]], in 1892. Her father, assisted by the family physician, removed her from her tomb two months after her death, cut out her heart and burned it to ashes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Vampires and Death in New England, 1784 to 1892|author=Bell, Michael E.|journal=Anthropology and Humanism|year=2006|volume=31|issue=2|pages=124–40|doi=10.1525/ahu.2006.31.2.124}}</ref>

[[Sarah Roberts (subject of vampire legend)|Sarah Roberts]] (1872–1913) was an Englishwoman who died and was buried in [[Pisco, Peru]]. After her death, a legend evolved that she was a vampire and bride of Dracula. On June 9, 1993, the 80th anniversary of her death, locals in Pisco feared she would come back to life and take her revenge.<ref name="lanc">{{cite news |last1=Henfield |first1=Sally |title=The 'Peruvian vampire' – from East Lancashire |url=https://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/4385196.peruvian-vampire---east-lancashire/ |access-date=3 October 2024 |work=Lancashire Telegraph |date=21 May 2009}}</ref>

==== Asia ====
Vampires have appeared in [[Japanese cinema]] since the late 1950s; the folklore behind it is western in origin.{{sfn|Bunson|1993|pp=137–138}} The [[Rokurokubi#Nukekubi|Nukekubi]] is a being whose head and neck detach from its body to fly about seeking human prey at night.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things|url=https://archive.org/details/kwaidanstories00hearrich|last=Hearn|first=Lafcadio|author-link=Lafcadio Hearn|year=1903|publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Company|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-585-15043-7}}</ref> Legends of female vampiric beings who can detach parts of their upper body also occur in the [[Philippine mythology|Philippines]], [[Malay folklore|Malaysia]], and [[Folklore of Indonesia|Indonesia]]. There are two main vampiric creatures in the Philippines: the [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]] ''[[Mandurugo]]'' ("blood-sucker") and the [[Visayan]] ''[[Manananggal]]'' ("self-segmenter"). The mandurugo is a variety of the [[aswang]] that takes the form of an attractive girl by day, and develops wings and a long, hollow, threadlike tongue by night. The tongue is used to suck up blood from a sleeping victim.<ref name="ramos"/> The ''manananggal'' is described as being an older, beautiful woman capable of severing its upper torso in order to fly into the night with huge batlike wings and prey on unsuspecting, sleeping pregnant women in their homes. They use an elongated proboscis-like tongue to suck [[fetus]]es from these pregnant women. They also prefer to eat entrails (specifically the [[heart]] and the [[liver]]) and the phlegm of sick people.<ref name="ramos">{{cite book|last=Ramos|first=Maximo D.|title=Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology|orig-year=1971|year=1990|publisher=Phoenix Publishing|location=Quezon|isbn=978-971-06-0691-7}}</ref>

The Malaysian ''[[Penanggalan]]'' is a woman who obtained her beauty through the active use of [[black magic]] or other unnatural means, and is most commonly described in local folklore to be dark or demonic in nature. She is able to detach her fanged head which flies around in the night looking for blood, typically from pregnant women.{{sfn|Bunson|1993|p=197}} Malaysians hung ''jeruju'' (thistles) around the doors and windows of houses, hoping the ''Penanggalan'' would not enter for fear of catching its intestines on the thorns.{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=34}} The [[Leyak]] is a similar being from [[Balinese mythology|Balinese folklore]] of Indonesia.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Witchcraft, Grief, and the Ambivalence of Emotions|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=26|issue=3|year=1999|pages=711–737|doi=10.1525/ae.1999.26.3.711|first=Michele|last=Stephen}}</ref> A ''[[Kuntilanak]]'' or ''Matianak'' in Indonesia,{{sfn|Bunson|1993|p=208}} or ''[[Pontianak (folklore)|Pontianak]]'' or ''[[Langsuir]]'' in Malaysia,{{sfn|Bunson|1993|p=150}} is a woman who [[Maternal mortality in fiction|died during childbirth]] and became undead, seeking revenge and terrorising villages. She appeared as an attractive woman with long black hair that covered a hole in the back of her neck, with which she sucked the blood of children. Filling the hole with her hair would drive her off. Corpses had their mouths filled with glass beads, eggs under each armpit, and needles in their palms to prevent them from becoming ''langsuir.'' This description would also fit the [[Sundel bolong|Sundel Bolongs]].{{sfn|Hoyt|1984|p=35}}

[[File:Stilt house, Black Thai - Vietnam Museum of Ethnology - Hanoi, Vietnam - DSC02781.JPG|thumb|right|A stilt house typical of the [[Tai Dam]] ethnic minority of Vietnam, whose communities were said to be terrorized by the blood-sucking ''ma cà rồng''|alt=See caption]]
In [[Vietnam]], the word used to translate Western vampires, "ma cà rồng", originally referred to a type of demon that haunts modern-day [[Phú Thọ Province]], within the communities of the [[Tai Dam]] [[Ethnic minorities of Vietnam|ethnic minority]]. The word was first mentioned in the chronicles of 18th-century [[Confucian]] scholar [[Lê Quý Đôn]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lê Quý Đôn |title=Kiến văn tiểu lục |date=2007 |publisher=NXB Văn hóa-Thông tin |page=353}}</ref> who spoke of a creature that lives among humans, but stuffs its toes into its [[nostrils]] at night and flies by its ears into houses with pregnant women to suck their blood. Having fed on these women, the ''ma cà rồng'' then returns to its house and cleans itself by dipping its toes into barrels of [[sappanwood]] water. This allows the ''ma cà rồng'' to live undetected among humans during the day, before heading out to attack again by night.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trương Quốc Dụng |title=Thoái thực ký văn |date=2020 |publisher=Writers' Association Publishing House}}</ref>

[[Jiangshi]], sometimes called "Chinese vampires" by Westerners, are reanimated corpses that hop around, killing living creatures to absorb life essence ([[qì]]) from their victims. They are said to be created when a person's soul (魄 [[Hun and po|''pò'']]) fails to leave the deceased's body.<ref>{{cite book|last=Suckling|first=Nigel|title=Vampires|year=2006|publisher=Facts, Figures & Fun|location=London|isbn=978-1-904332-48-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/vampires0000suck/page/31 31]|url=https://archive.org/details/vampires0000suck/page/31}}</ref> ''Jiangshi'' are usually represented as mindless creatures with no independent thought.<ref>{{cite book|last=劉|first=天賜|title=僵屍與吸血鬼|year=2008|publisher=Joint Publishing (H.K.)|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-04-2735-0|page=196}}</ref> This monster has greenish-white furry skin, perhaps derived from fungus or [[mould]] growing on corpses.<ref>{{cite book|last=de Groot|first=J.J.M.|title=The Religious System of China|year=1910|publisher=[[E.J. Brill]]|oclc=7022203}}<!--many recent editions for this--></ref> Jiangshi legends have inspired a [[Jiangshi fiction|genre of jiangshi films]] and literature in Hong Kong and East Asia. Films like ''[[Encounters of the Spooky Kind]]'' and ''[[Mr. Vampire]]'' were released during the jiangshi cinematic boom of the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lam|first=Stephanie|year=2009|title=Hop on Pop: Jiangshi Films in a Transnational Context|journal=CineAction|issue=78|pages=46–51}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hudson|first=Dave|title=Draculas, Vampires, and Other Undead Forms|year=2009|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-6923-3|page=215}}</ref>