Editing Attachment theory (section)

===Significance of patterns===
Research based on data from longitudinal studies, such as the [[National Institute of Child Health and Human Development]] Study of Early Child Care and the Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaption from Birth to Adulthood, and from cross-sectional studies, consistently shows associations between early attachment classifications and peer relationships as to both quantity and quality. Lyons-Ruth, for example, found that "for each additional withdrawing behavior displayed by mothers in relation to their infant's attachment cues in the Strange Situation Procedure, the likelihood of clinical referral by service providers was increased by 50%."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyons-Ruth K, Bureau JF, Easterbrooks MA, Obsuth I, Hennighausen K, Vulliez-Coady L | title = Parsing the construct of maternal insensitivity: distinct longitudinal pathways associated with early maternal withdrawal | journal = Attachment & Human Development | volume = 15 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 562–82 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24299135 | pmc = 3861901 | doi = 10.1080/14616734.2013.841051 }}</ref>

There is an extensive body of research demonstrating a significant association between attachment organizations and children's functioning across multiple domains.<ref name="PPP">{{cite book |title=Psychotherapy of abused and neglected children |url=https://archive.org/details/psychotherapyabu00pear |vauthors=Pearce JW, Pezzot-Pearce TD |publisher=Guilford press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-59385-213-9 |edition=2nd |location=New York and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychotherapyabu00pear/page/17 17]–20}}</ref> Early insecure attachment does not necessarily predict difficulties, but it is a liability for the child, particularly if similar parental behaviours continue throughout childhood.{{sfn|Karen|1998|pp=248–66}} Compared to that of securely attached children, the adjustment of insecure children in many spheres of life is not as soundly based, putting their future relationships in jeopardy. Although the link is not fully established by research and there are other influences besides attachment, secure infants are more likely to become socially competent than their insecure peers. Relationships formed with peers influence the acquisition of social skills, intellectual development and the formation of social identity. Classification of children's peer status (popular, neglected or rejected) has been found to predict subsequent adjustment.<ref name="Schaffer" /> Insecure children, particularly avoidant children, are especially vulnerable to family risk. Their social and behavioural problems increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in parenting. However, an early secure attachment appears to have a lasting protective function.<ref name="bercasapp">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=The Influence of Early Attachments on Other Relationships |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=333–47 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Berlin LJ, Cassidy J, Appleyard K |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref> As with attachment to parental figures, subsequent experiences may alter the course of development.<ref name="Schaffer" />

Studies have suggested that infants with a high-risk for [[autism spectrum disorders]] (ASD) may express attachment security differently from infants with a low-risk for ASD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haltigan JD, Ekas NV, Seifer R, Messinger DS | title = Attachment security in infants at-risk for autism spectrum disorders | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 41 | issue = 7 | pages = 962–7 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 20859669 | pmc = 4486071 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-010-1107-7 }}</ref> Behavioural problems and social competence in insecure children increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in quality of parenting and the degree of risk in the family environment.<ref name=bercasapp/>

Some authors have questioned the idea that a [[wikt:taxonomy|taxonomy]] of categories representing a qualitative difference in attachment relationships can be developed. Examination of data from 1,139 15-month-olds showed that variation in attachment patterns was continuous rather than grouped.<ref name="FraSpe">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fraley RC, Spieker SJ | title = Are infant attachment patterns continuously or categorically distributed? A taxometric analysis of strange situation behavior | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 387–404 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12760508 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.387 }}</ref> This criticism introduces important questions for attachment typologies and the mechanisms behind apparent types. However, it has relatively little relevance for attachment theory itself, which "neither requires nor predicts discrete patterns of attachment."<ref name="WatBea">{{cite journal | vauthors = Waters E, Beauchaine TP | title = Are there really patterns of attachment? Comment on Fraley and Spieker (2003) | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_2003-05_39_3/page/417 | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 417–22; discussion 423–9 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12760512 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.417 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.128.1029 }}</ref>

There is some evidence that gender differences in attachment patterns of [[Adaption|adaptive]] significance begin to emerge in middle childhood. There has been a common tendency observed by researchers that males demonstrate a greater tendency to engage in criminal behaviour which is suspected to be related to males being more likely to experience inadequate early attachments to primary caregivers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hayslett-Mccall |first1=Karen L. |last2=Bernard |first2=Thomas J. |date=February 2002 |title=Attachment, masculinity, and self-control |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/136248060200600101 |journal=Theoretical Criminology |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=5–33 |doi=10.1177/136248060200600101 |s2cid=143624197 |issn=1362-4806|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Insecure attachment and early psycho[[social stress]] indicate the presence of environmental risk (for example poverty, mental illness, instability, minority status, violence). Environmental risk can cause insecure attachment, while also favouring the development of strategies for earlier reproduction. Different reproductive strategies have different adaptive values for males and females: Insecure males tend to adopt avoidant strategies, whereas insecure females tend to adopt anxious/ambivalent strategies, unless they are in a very high risk environment. [[Adrenarche]] is proposed as the endocrine mechanism underlying the reorganization of insecure attachment in middle childhood.<ref name="delguid">{{cite journal | vauthors = Del Giudice M | title = Sex, attachment, and the development of reproductive strategies | journal = The Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–21; discussion 21–67 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19210806 | doi = 10.1017/S0140525X09000016 | s2cid = 5396375 }}</ref>