Editing Boletus edulis (section)

==Culinary uses==
[[File:Porcini mushroom soup in breadbowl poland 2010.JPG|thumb|left|A porcini mushroom and noodle soup served in a bread bowl at a Polish restaurant]]
[[File:Penny bun sandwich at Nordiska Museet.jpg|thumb|left|A porcini mushroom sandwich in Stockholm, Sweden]]
''Boletus edulis'', as the species [[Botanical name#Components of plant names|epithet]] ''edulis'' ({{langx|la|edible}}) indicates, is an edible mushroom. Italian chef and restaurateur [[Antonio Carluccio]] has described it as representing "the wild mushroom ''par excellence''", and hails it as the most rewarding of all fungi in the kitchen for its taste and versatility.<ref name = "Carluccio03"/> Considered a choice edible, particularly in France, Germany, Poland and Italy,<ref name=Zeitl76/> it was widely written about by the Roman writers [[Pliny the Elder]] and Martial, although ranked below the esteemed ''[[Amanita caesarea]]''. When he was served ''suilli''{{efn|The term ''suilli'' was also thought to encompass the related ''[[Leccinum scabrum]]''.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Rolfe RT, Rolfe EW |title=The Romance of the Fungus World|publisher=Dover|location=New York|page=287|isbn=0-486-23105-4|year=1974}}</ref>}} instead of ''boleti'',<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Brothwell DR, Brothwell P |title=Food in Antiquity: a Survey of the Diet of Early Peoples |year=1998 |orig-date=1969|page=92|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, MD|isbn=0-8018-5740-6}}</ref> the disgruntled Martial wrote: {{blockquote|''sunt tibi boleti; fungos ego sumo suillos'' (Ep. iii. 60)<br />("You eat the choice boletus, I have mushrooms that swine grub up.")<ref>{{cite journal |author=Morford M. |year=1977 |title=Juvenal's Fifth Satire |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=219–45 |doi=10.2307/293772 |jstor=293772}}</ref>}}

The flavour of porcini has been described as nutty and slightly meaty, with a smooth, creamy texture, and a distinctive aroma reminiscent of [[sourdough]]. Young, small porcini are most appreciated, as the large ones often harbour [[maggot]]s (insect larvae), and become slimy, soft and less tasty with age. The fruit bodies are collected by holding the stipe near the base and twisting gently. Cutting the stipe with a knife may risk the part left behind rotting and the mycelium being destroyed. Peeling and washing are not recommended.<ref name="Carluccio03" /> The fruit bodies are highly [[decomposition|perishable]], due largely to the high water content (around 90%), the high level of [[enzyme]] activity, and the presence of a flora of microorganisms.<ref name=Jaworska2008>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jaworska G, Bernaś E |year=2008 |title=The effect of preliminary processing and period of storage on the quality of frozen ''Boletus edulis'' (Bull: Fr.) mushrooms |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=936–43 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.08.023}}</ref> Caution should be exercised when collecting specimens from potentially polluted or [[Soil contamination|contaminated]] sites, as several studies have shown that the fruit bodies can [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] toxic heavy metals like [[mercury (element)|mercury]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Melgar MJ, Alonson J, Garcia MA |year=2009 |title=Mercury in edible mushrooms and underlying soil: Bioconcentration factors and toxicological risk |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=407 |issue=1 |pages=5328–34 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.07.001|pmid=19631362|bibcode=2009ScTEn.407.5328M }}</ref> [[cadmium]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Collin-Hansen C, Yttri KE, Andersen RA, Berthelsen BO, Steinnes E |year=2002 |title=Mushrooms from two metal-contaminated areas in Norway: occurrence of metals and metallothionein-like proteins |journal=Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages= 121–30|doi=10.1144/1467-787302-015|bibcode=2002GEEA....2..121C |s2cid=129662148 }}</ref> [[caesium]] and [[polonium]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Collin-Hansen C, Andersen RA, Steinnes E |year=2005 |title=Molecular defense systems are expressed in the king bolete (''Boletus edulis'') growing near metal smelters |journal=Mycologia |volume=97 |issue=5|pages=973–83|doi=10.3852/mycologia.97.5.973 |pmid=16596949 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Collin-Hansen C, Andersen RA, Steinnes E |year=2005 |title=Damage to DNA and lipids in ''Boletus edulis'' exposed to heavy metals |journal=Mycological Research |volume=109 |issue=12 |pages=1386–96 |doi= 10.1017/S0953756205004016|pmid=16353638}}</ref> Bioaccumulated metals or [[radionuclide|radioactive fission decay products]] are like chemical signatures: [[analytical chemistry|chemical]] and [[radiochemistry|radiochemical]] analysis can be used to identify the origin of imported specimens,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Marzano FN, Bracchi PG, Pizzetti P |year=2001 |title=Radioactive and conventional pollutants accumulated by edible mushrooms (''Boletus'' sp.) are useful indicators of species origin |journal=Environmental Research |pmid=11237515 |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=260–64 |doi=10.1006/enrs.2001.4233|bibcode=2001ER.....85..260M }}</ref> and for long-term [[radioecology|radioecological]] monitoring of polluted areas.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Grodzinskaya AA, Berreck M, Haselwandter K, Wasser SP |year=2003 |title=Radiocesium contamination of wild-growing medicinal mushrooms in Ukraine |journal=International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=61–86 |issn=1521-9437 |doi=10.1615/InterJMedicMush.v5.i1.90}}</ref>

Porcini are sold fresh in markets in summer and autumn in Europe and Russia, and dried or canned at other times of the year, and distributed worldwide to countries where they are not otherwise found.<ref name=Lamaison05>{{cite book |title=The Great Encyclopedia of Mushrooms |vauthors=Lamaison JL, Polese JM |year=2005 |publisher=Könemann |location=Koln, Germany |isbn=3-8331-1239-5|page=28}}</ref> They are eaten and enjoyed raw, sautéed with butter, ground into pasta, in soups, and in many other dishes. In France, they are used in recipes such as ''cèpes à la Bordelaise'', ''cèpe frits'' and ''cèpe aux tomates''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramsbottom J. |year=1947 |title=Some edible fungi |journal=The British Medical Journal |volume=2 |issue=4250 |pages=304–305 |doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4520.304|pmid=20257565 |pmc=2055419 }}</ref> Porcini [[risotto]] is a traditional Italian autumn dish.<ref>Carluccio, p. 166.</ref> Porcini are a feature of many cuisines, including [[Provence|Provençal]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Olney R. |title= A Provençal Table|year=1995 |pages=31–32|publisher=Pavilion |location=London |isbn=1-85793-632-9}}</ref> and [[Vienna|Viennese]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Philpot R. |title= Viennese Cookery|year=1965 |pages=139–40|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |location=London }}</ref> In [[Thailand]] they are used in soups and consumed blanched in salads.<ref name=Solomon>{{cite book |title=Charmaine Solomon's Encyclopedia of Asian Food |author=Solomon C. |year=1996 |publisher=William Heinemann Australia |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-85561-688-1|page=238}}</ref> Porcini can also be frozen, either while raw or after cooking in butter. The colour, aroma, and taste of porcini deteriorate noticeably after being frozen for four months. [[blanching (cooking)|Blanching]] (or soaking and blanching) as a processing step before freezing can extend the freezer life to 12 months.<ref name=Jaworska2008/> They are also one of the few species sold commercially as [[pickled mushrooms]].<ref>Carluccio, p. 99.</ref>

===Dried===
[[File:Pile of Porcini-2.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A heaped pile of dried sliced mushrooms on a large plate. A sign near the back of the plate reads "Fungo di Borgotaro I.G.P."; another sign at the front reads "Prezzo speciale di Fiera. 3 Etti 18,00". An electronic scale is partially visible on a table behind the mushrooms|A pile of dried porcini at the [[Borgotaro]] porcino festival in Italy]]
''Boletus edulis'' is well suited to drying—its flavour intensifies, it is easily reconstituted, and its resulting texture is pleasant.<ref>Carluccio, p. 96.</ref> Reconstitution is done by soaking in hot, but not boiling, water for about twenty minutes; the water used is infused with the mushroom aroma and it too can be used in subsequent cooking. Dried porcini have more protein than most other commonly consumed vegetables, apart from [[soybean]]s. Some of their protein is indigestible, though digestibility is improved with cooking.<ref name=Arora86>{{cite book|title=Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi|author=Arora D.|year=1986|publisher=Ten Speed Press|location=Berkeley, California|isbn=0-89815-169-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/30 30]|url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/30}}</ref>

Like other boletes, porcini can be dried by being strung separately on twine and hung close to the ceiling of a kitchen. Alternatively, the mushrooms can be dried by cleaning with a brush (washing is not recommended), and then placing them in a wicker basket or [[bamboo steamer]] on top of a boiler or hot water tank.<ref name=Carluccio97>Carluccio, p. 97.</ref> Another method is drying in an oven at {{convert|25|to|30|C|F}} for two to three hours, then increasing the temperature to {{convert|50|C|F}} until crisp or brittle.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Gates L, Delong D |title=How to Dry Foods |publisher=HP Books |location=Los Angeles, California |year=1992 |page=61 |isbn=1-55788-050-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aSBfsPQP_MQC&q=cooking%20Boletus%20edulis&pg=PA61 |access-date=2009-10-06}}</ref> Once dry, they must be kept in an airtight container.<ref name=Carluccio97/> Importantly for commercial production, porcini retain their flavour after industrial preparation in a [[pressure cooking|pressure cooker]] or after canning or bottling, and are thus useful for manufacturers of soups or stews. The addition of a few pieces of dried porcino can significantly add to flavour, and they are a major ingredient of the pasta sauce known as ''carrettiera'' (carter's sauce).<ref>{{cite book |author=Seed D. |title=The Top One Hundred Pasta Sauces |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley, California |year=1987 |page=25 |isbn=0-89815-232-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5JfdNVZlwA0C&q=cooking%20Boletus%20edulis&pg=PA25 |access-date=2010-11-06}}</ref> The drying process is known to induce the formation of various [[volatile organic compound|volatile substances]] that contribute to the mushroom's aroma. Chemical analysis has shown that the odour of the dried mushroom is a complex mixture of 53 volatile compounds.<ref name="pmid19845295">{{cite journal |vauthors=Misharina TA, Muhutdinova SM, Zharikova GG, Terenina MB, Krikunova NI |title=The composition of volatile components of cepe (''Boletus edulis'') and oyster mushrooms (''Pleurotus ostreatus'') |journal=Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=187–93 |year=2009 |pmid=19382709|doi=10.1134/S0003683809020124|s2cid=21525680 }}</ref>

===Commercial harvest===
[[File:Steinpilz 2006 08 3.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Approximately two dozen brown-capped, white or light-brown stemmed mushrooms of various sizes in a brown bowl.|Porcini can vary considerably in size.]]
A 1998 estimate suggested that the total annual worldwide consumption of ''Boletus edulis'' and closely related species (''B.&nbsp;aereus'', ''B.&nbsp;pinophilus'', and ''B.&nbsp;reticulatus'') was between 20,000 and 100,000 tons.<ref name=Hall1998/> Approximately 2,700&nbsp;tonnes (3,000&nbsp;[[Short ton|tons]]) were sold in France, Italy and Germany in 1988, according to official figures. The true amount consumed far exceeds this, as the official sales figures did not account for informal sales or consumption by collectors.<ref name=Hall2003/> They are widely exported and sold in dried form, reaching countries where they do not occur naturally, such as Australia and New Zealand. The autonomous community of [[Castile and León]] in Spain produces 7,700&nbsp;tonnes (8,500&nbsp;tons) annually.<ref name=Agueda2008>{{cite journal |vauthors=Agueda B, Parlade J, Fernandez-Toiran LM, Cisneros O, de Miguel AM, Modrego MP, Martinez-Pena F, Pera J |year=2008 |title=Mycorrhizal synthesis between ''Boletus edulis'' species complex and rockroses (''Cistus'' sp.) |journal=Mycorrhiza |pmid=18695982 |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=443–49 |doi=10.1007/s00572-008-0192-3|s2cid=11233267 }}</ref> In autumn, the price of porcini in the Northern Hemisphere typically ranges between $20 and $80&nbsp;per kilogram, although in New York in 1997 the wholesale price rose to more than $200 per kilogram due to scarcity.<ref name=Hall2003/>

In the vicinity of [[Borgo Val di Taro|Borgotaro]] in the [[Province of Parma]] of northern Italy, the four species ''Boletus edulis'', ''B.&nbsp;aereus'', ''B.&nbsp;aestivalis'' and ''B.&nbsp;pinophilus'' have been recognised for their superior taste and officially termed ''Fungo di Borgotaro''. Here these mushrooms have been collected for centuries and exported commercially. Owing to the globalisation of the mushroom trade most of the porcini commercially available in Italy or exported by Italy no longer originate there. Porcini and other mushrooms are also imported into Italy from various locations, especially China and eastern European countries; these are then often re-exported under the "Italian porcini" label.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sitta N, Floriani M |year=2008 |title=Nationalization and globalization trends in the wild mushroom commerce of Italy with emphasis on porcini (''Boletus edulis'' and allied species) |journal=Economic Botany |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=307–22 |doi=10.1007/s12231-008-9037-4|s2cid=44274570 }}</ref><ref name=Boa2004>{{cite book |author= Boa E. |title=Wild Edible Fungi: A Global Overview of Their Use and Importance to People (Non-Wood Forest Products) |publisher=Food & Agriculture Organization of the UN |location=Rome, Italy |year=2004 |pages=96–97 |isbn=92-5-105157-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zd2NlcNZgvcC&q=boletus%20edulis&pg=PA97|access-date=2009-10-30}}</ref>

In Italy the disconnect with local production has had an adverse effect on quality; for example in the 1990s some of the dried porcino mushrooms exported to Italy from China contained species of genus ''[[Tylopilus]]'', which are rather similar in appearance and when dried are difficult for both mushroom labourers and mycologists alike to distinguish from ''Boletus''. ''Tylopilus'' species typically have a very bitter taste, which is imparted to the flavour of the porcini with which they are mixed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sitta N. |year=2000 |title=Presence of ''Tylopilus'' into dried "Porcini" mushrooms from China |journal=Micologia Italiana |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=96–99 |issn=0390-0460|language=it}}</ref>

After the [[revolutions of 1989|fall of the Iron Curtain]] and the subsequent reduction of economic and political barriers, central and eastern European countries with local mushroom harvesting traditions, such as Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia, developed into exporters of porcini, concentrating primarily on the Italian market.<ref name=Boa2004/> Porcini and other wild fungi from these countries are also destined for France, Germany and other western European markets, where demand for them exists but collection on a commercial scale does not.<ref name=Boa2004/> Picking ''B.&nbsp;edulis'' has become an annual seasonal income earner and pastime in countries like [[Bulgaria]], especially for many [[Romani people|Roma]] communities and the [[unemployment|unemployed]].<ref name=belogradchik>{{cite web |url=http://www.belogradchik.info/1/content/view/390/2/lang,bg/ |language=bg |title=''По 1 тон гъби на ден се предават в изкупвателните пунктове в Белоградчик'' |trans-title=One ton of mushrooms a day are being submitted to purchasing stations in Belogradchik |author=Focus Information Agency, Bulgaria |work=Belogradchik.info |access-date=2009-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721185827/http://www.belogradchik.info/1/content/view/390/2/lang%2Cbg/ |archive-date=2011-07-21 }}</ref> A lack of control of the harvest has led to heavy exploitation of the mushroom resource.<ref name=worldwildlife>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/europe/bulgaria/bulgaria1.html |title=The Macromycetes Fungi of Bulgaria |vauthors=Drumeva M, Gyosheva M |work= World Wildlife Fund|access-date=2009-11-27}}</ref>

Like many other strictly mycorrhizal fungi, ''B.&nbsp;edulis'' has eluded cultivation attempts for years.<ref name=Arora86/><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Chang ST, Miles PG |title=Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact|url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomscultiva00mile |url-access=limited |edition=2nd |year=2004|publisher=CRC Press |location= Boca Raton, Florida|isbn=0-8493-1043-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomscultiva00mile/page/n155 131]}}</ref><ref name="Wang2014" /> The results of some studies suggest that unknown components of the soil microflora might be required for ''B.&nbsp;edulis'' to establish a mycorrhizal relationship with the host plant.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Veselkov IM. |year=1975 |title=Artificial propagation of ''Boletus edulis'' in forests |journal=Растительньіе Ресурсы России|volume=11 |pages= 574–78}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ceruti A, Tozzi M, Reitano G |year=1988 |title=Micorize di sintesi tra ''Boletus edulis'', ''Pinus sylvestris'' e ''Picea excelsa'' |journal=Allionia (Turin)|volume=28 |pages= 117–24|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Fitter AH, Garbaye J |year=1994 |chapter=Interaction between mycorrhizal fungi and other organisms|title=Management of Mycorrhizas in Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry |veditors=Robson AD, Abbott LK, Malajczuk N |isbn=978-0-7923-2700-4 |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |location=Dordrecht, Netherlands}}</ref> Successful attempts at cultivating ''B.&nbsp;edulis'' have been made by Spanish scientists by mycorrhization of ''Cistus'' species,<ref name="Wang2014" /> with [[Pseudomonas fluorescens|''Pseudomonas&nbsp;fluorescens'']] bacteria helping the mycorrhiza.<ref name="Mediavilla2015" />

{{nutritionalvalue
| name=''Boletus edulis'', fresh<ref name=Caglarlrmak2002>Nutritional values are based on [[food chemistry|chemical analysis]] of Turkish specimens, conducted by Çaglarlrmak and colleagues at the Agricultural Faculty, Food Engineering Department, [[Gaziosmanpașa University]]. Source: {{cite journal |vauthors=Çaglarlrmak N, Ünal K, Ötles S |year=2001 |title=Nutritional value of edible wild mushrooms collected from the Black Sea region of Turkey |journal=Micologia Aplicada International |volume= 14|issue=1 |pages=1–5 |url=http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/685/68514101.pdf}}</ref>
| kJ=342.4
| protein=7.39&nbsp;g
| fat=1.70&nbsp;g
| carbs=9.23&nbsp;g
| iron_mg=0.739
| calcium_mg=1.195
| copper_mg=0.786
| phosphorus_mg=22.26
| potassium_mg=203.3
| zinc_mg=4.172
| vitC_mg=4.21
| pantothenic_mg=2.64
| vitB6_mg=0.051
| folate_ug=290
| thiamin_mg=0.105
| riboflavin_mg=0.092
| niacin_mg=6.07
| source_usda=1
}}