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Breeder reactor
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==Production== Like many aspects of nuclear power, fast breeder reactors have been subject to much controversy over the years. In 2010 the [[International Panel on Fissile Materials]] said "After six decades and the expenditure of the equivalent of tens of billions of dollars, the promise of breeder reactors remains largely unfulfilled and efforts to commercialize them have been steadily cut back in most countries". In Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, breeder reactor development programs have been abandoned.<ref>{{cite web |title=It's time to give up on breeder reactors |work=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |author1=M.V. Ramana |author2=Mycle Schneider |author-link1=M.V. Ramana |author-link2=Mycle Schneider |date=May–June 2010 |url=http://fissilematerials.org/library/Breeders_BAS_May_June_2010.pdf |access-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206231057/http://fissilematerials.org/library/Breeders_BAS_May_June_2010.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="fbrb2010">{{cite book |title=Fast Breeder Reactor Programs: History and Status |author=Frank von Hippel |publisher=International Panel on Fissile Materials |isbn=978-0-9819275-6-5 |display-authors=etal |date=February 2010 |url=http://fissilematerials.org/library/rr08.pdf |access-date=28 April 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407191232/http://fissilematerials.org/library/rr08.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2020}}</ref> The rationale for pursuing breeder reactors—sometimes explicit and sometimes implicit—was based on the following key assumptions:<ref name=fbrb2010/><ref>{{cite web |title=It's time to give up on breeder reactors |work=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |author1=M.V. Ramana |author2=Mycle Schneider |author-link1=M.V. Ramana |author-link2=Mycle Schneider |date=May–June 2010 |url=http://fissilematerials.org/library/Breeders_BAS_May_June_2010.pdf |access-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206231057/http://fissilematerials.org/library/Breeders_BAS_May_June_2010.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> *It was expected that uranium would be scarce and high-grade deposits would quickly become depleted if fission power were deployed on a large scale; the reality, however, is that since the end of the [[Cold War]], uranium has been much cheaper and more abundant than early designers expected.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Uranium Supply and Demand – Council on Foreign Relations |url=http://www.cfr.org/energy/global-uranium-supply-demand/p14705 |access-date=10 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120410010518/http://www.cfr.org/energy/global-uranium-supply-demand/p14705 |archive-date=10 April 2012}}</ref> *It was expected that breeder reactors would quickly become economically competitive with the light-water reactors that dominate nuclear power today, but the reality is that capital costs are at least 25% more than water-cooled reactors. *It was thought that breeder reactors could be as safe and reliable as light-water reactors, but safety issues are cited as a concern with fast reactors that use a sodium coolant, where a leak could lead to a sodium fire. *It was expected that the proliferation risks posed by breeders and their "closed" fuel cycle, in which plutonium would be recycled, could be managed. But since plutonium-breeding reactors produce plutonium from U238, and thorium reactors produce fissile U233 from thorium, all breeding cycles could theoretically pose proliferation risks.<ref name="Council">{{cite web |title=Global Uranium Supply and Demand – Council on Foreign Relations |url=http://www.ipcs.org/seminar/nuclear/modular-nuclear-reactors-and-breeder-technology-842.html |access-date=25 July 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505033427/http://www.ipcs.org/seminar/nuclear/modular-nuclear-reactors-and-breeder-technology-842.html |archive-date=5 May 2012}}</ref> However U-232, which is always present in U-233 produced in breeder reactors, is a strong gamma-emitter via its daughter products, and would make weapon handling extremely hazardous and the weapon easy to detect.<ref>''Introduction to Weapons of Mass Destruction'', Langford, R. Everett (2004). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 85. {{ISBN|0-471-46560-7}}. "The US tested a few uranium-233 bombs, but the presence of uranium-232 in the uranium-233 was a problem; the uranium-232 is a copious alpha emitter and tended to 'poison' the uranium-233 bomb by knocking stray neutrons from impurities in the bomb material, leading to possible pre-detonation. Separation of the uranium-232 from the uranium-233 proved to be very difficult and not practical. The uranium-233 bomb was never deployed since plutonium-239 was becoming plentiful."</ref> Some past anti-nuclear advocates have become pro-nuclear power as a clean source of electricity since breeder reactors effectively recycle most of their waste. This solves one of the most-important negative issues of nuclear power. In the documentary ''[[Pandora's Promise]]'', a case is made for breeder reactors because they provide a real high-kW alternative to fossil fuel energy. According to the movie, one pound of uranium provides as much energy as 5,000 [[barrel of oil equivalent|barrels of oil]].<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Len Koch, pioneering nuclear engineer |year=2013 |title=Pandora's Promise |medium=Motion picture |format=DVD, streaming |minutes=11 |publisher=Impact Partners and CNN Films |ref=PandoraPromise_Koch |url=http://pandoraspromise.com/ |access-date=24 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418044236/http://pandoraspromise.com/ |archive-date=18 April 2014 |quote=One pound of uranium, which is the size of my fingertip, if you could release all of the energy, has the equivalent of about 5,000 barrels of oil.}}</ref> === Notable reactors === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center" |+ Notable breeder reactors<ref name=":1" /><ref name="world-nuclear.org">{{cite web |title=Nuclear Fusion: WNA - World Nuclear Association |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/Fast-Neutron-Reactors/ |access-date=2 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316080643/http://world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/Fast-Neutron-Reactors/ |archive-date=16 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="pillai-2014">{{cite journal |title=Breeder reactors: A possible connection between metal corrosion and sodium leaks |author=S. R. Pillai, M. V. Ramana |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=49–55 |year=2014 |bibcode=2014BuAtS..70c..49P |s2cid=144406710 |doi=10.1177/0096340214531178 |url=http://bos.sagepub.com/content/70/3/49 |access-date=15 February 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017114605/http://bos.sagepub.com/content/70/3/49 |archive-date=17 October 2015|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="IAEA-PRIS">{{cite web |title=Database on Nuclear Power Reactors |publisher=IAEA |work=PRIS |url=http://www.iaea.org/PRIS/ |access-date=15 February 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602010449/http://www.iaea.org/pris/ |archive-date=2 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 (EBR-1) - Cheeka Tales |url=http://cheekatales.weebly.com/experimental-breeder-reactor-1-ebr-1.html |access-date=2 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402120752/http://cheekatales.weebly.com/experimental-breeder-reactor-1-ebr-1.html |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> |- !Reactor !! Country<br>when built !! Started !! Shut down !! Design<br>MWe !! Final<br>MWe !! Thermal<br>Power MWt !! [[Capacity factor|Capacity<br>factor]] !! Number of<br>coolant leaks !! [[Neutron temperature|Neutron<br>temperature]] !! Coolant !! Reactor class |- |[[Dounreay#DFR|DFR]] || UK || 1962 || 1977 || 14 || 11 || 65 || 34% || 7 || Fast || [[NaK]] || Test |- |[[China Experimental Fast Reactor]] || China || 2012 || operating || 20 || 22 || 65|| 40% || 8 || Fast || [[Sodium]] || Test<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese fast reactor begins high-power operation: New Nuclear - World Nuclear News |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Chinese-fast-reactor-begins-high-power-operation}}</ref> |- |[[CFR-600]] || China || 2017 || commissioning/2023 || 642 || 682 || 1882 || 34% || 27 || Fast || [[Sodium]] || Commercial<ref>{{cite web |title=China's New Breeder Reactors May Produce More Than Just Watts - IEEE Spectrum |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/china-breeder-reactor}}</ref> |- |[[BN-350 reactor|BN-350]] || Soviet Union || 1973 || 1999 || 350 || 52 || 750 || 43% || 15 || Fast || [[Sodium]] || Prototype |- |[[Rapsodie]] || France || 1967 || 1983 || 0 || – || 40 || – || 2 || Fast || Sodium || Test |- |[[Phénix]] || France || 1975 || 2010 || 233 || 130 || 563 || 40.5% || 31 || Fast || Sodium || Prototype |- |[[Dounreay#PFR|PFR]] || UK || 1976 || 1994 || 234 || 234 || 650 || 26.9% || 20 || Fast || Sodium || Prototype |- |KNK II || Germany || 1977 || 1991 || 18 || 17 || 58 || 17.1% || 21 || Fast || Sodium || Research/Test |- |[[SNR-300]] || Germany || 1985 || 1991 || 327 || – || – || non-nuclear tests only || – || Fast || Sodium || Prototype/Commercial |- |[[BN-600 reactor|BN-600]] || Soviet Union || 1981 || {{sort|9997|operating}} || 560 || 560 || 1470 || 74.2% || 27 || Fast || Sodium || Prototype/Commercial (Gen2) |- |[[Fast Flux Test Facility|FFTF]] || US || 1982 || 1993 || 0 || – || 400 || – || 1 || Fast || Sodium || Test |- |[[Superphénix]] || France || 1985 || 1998 || 1200 || 1200 || 3000 || {{sort|07.9|7.9%}} || 7 || Fast || Sodium || Prototype/Commercial (Gen2) |- |[[FBTR]] || India || 1985 || {{sort|9997|operating}} || 13 || – || 40 || – || 6 || Fast || Sodium || Test |- |[[Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor|PFBR]] || India || 2004 || 2024 || 500 || – || 1250 || – || – || Fast || Sodium || Prototype/Commercial (Gen3) |- |[[Jōyō (nuclear reactor)|Jōyō]] || Japan || 1977 || 2007 || 0 || – || 150 || – || – || Fast || Sodium || Test |- |[[Monju Nuclear Power Plant|Monju]] || Japan || 1995 || 2017 || 246 || 246 || 714 || {{sort|00.1|trial only}} || 1 || Fast || Sodium || Prototype |- |[[BN-800 reactor|BN-800]] || Russia || 2015 || {{sort|9997|operating}} || 789 || 880 || 2100 || 73.4% || – || Fast || Sodium || Prototype/Commercial (Gen3) |- |[[Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment|MSRE]] || US || 1965 || 1969 || 0 || – || 7.4 || – || – || Epithermal || Molten salt ([[FLiBe]]) || Test |- |[[Clementine (nuclear reactor)|Clementine]] || US || 1946 || 1952 || 0 || – || 0.025 || – || – || Fast || [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] || World's First Fast Reactor<ref name=":1" /> |- |[[Experimental Breeder Reactor I|EBR-1]] || US || 1951 || 1964 || 0.2 || 0.2 || 1.4 || – || – || Fast || [[NaK]] || First Power Reactor |- |[[Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station#Fermi 1|Fermi-1]] || US || 1963 || 1972 || 66 || 66 || 200 || – || – || Fast || Sodium || Prototype |- |[[Experimental Breeder Reactor II|EBR-2]] || US || 1964 || 1994 || 19 || 19 || 62.5 || – || – || Fast || Sodium || Experimental/Test |- |[[Shippingport Atomic Power Station|Shippingport]] || US || 1977<br>as breeder || 1982 || 60 || 60 || 236 || – || – || Thermal || Light Water || Experimental-Core3 |- |} {{Clear}} The Soviet Union constructed a series of fast reactors, the first being mercury-cooled and fueled with plutonium metal, and the later plants sodium-cooled and fueled with plutonium oxide. BR-1 (1955) was 100W (thermal) was followed by BR-2 at 100 kW and then the 5 MW BR-5.<ref name="Korobeinikov_2014">{{cite conference |author=Valerii Korobeinikov |title=Innovative Concepts Based on Fast Reactor Technology |conference=1st Consultancy Meeting for Review of Innovative Reactor Concepts for Prevention of Severe Accidents and Mitigation of their Consequences |website=International Atomic Energy Agency |date=31 March – 2 April 2014 |url=https://www.iaea.org/NuclearPower/Downloadable/Meetings/2014/2014-03-31-04-02-CM-INPRO/RUSSIA_PPT_MS_Presentations_1st_CM_on_RISC_.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304072421/https://www.iaea.org/NuclearPower/Downloadable/Meetings/2014/2014-03-31-04-02-CM-INPRO/RUSSIA_PPT_MS_Presentations_1st_CM_on_RISC_.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> BOR-60 (first criticality 1969) was 60 MW, with construction started in 1965.<ref>{{cite web |title=Experimental fast reactor BOR-60 |author=FSUE "State Scientific Center of Russian Federation Research Institute of Atomic Reactors" |url=http://www-dev.niiar.ru/ofibr/en/e_bor60.htm |access-date=15 June 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231133752/http://www-dev.niiar.ru/ofibr/en/e_bor60.htm |archive-date=31 December 2012}}</ref>
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