Editing Development communication (section)

== Policy ==
Development communication policy covers formal and informal processes where interests are defined, expressed and negotiated by actors with different levels of power and with the goal of influencing policy decisions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mansell|first1=Robin|title=The Handbook of Global Media and Communication Policy|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookglobalme00mans|url-access=registration|year=2011|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |first2=Marc |last2=Raboy |isbn=978-1-4051-9871-4 |author-link1=Robin Mansell}}</ref>

Alexander G. Flor, PhD, a noted development communicator and professor at the University of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB) and University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU), posits that development communication and the policy sciences are linked inextricably albeit distinct and mutually exclusive disciplines. "Policy sciences", he states in a nutshell, is the scientific study of policies and policy-making while "policy" is the set of decisions with specific objectives and target audience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Flor |first=Alexander G |title=Development Communication and the Policy Sciences |date=1991 |url=https://www.academia.edu/578845 |journal=Journal of Development Communication |location=Kuala Lumpu |publisher=Asian Institute of Development}}</ref>

Development communication is intended to build consensus and facilitate knowledge sharing to achieve positive change in development initiatives. It disseminates information and employs empirical research, two-way communication and dialogue among stakeholders. It is a management tool to help assess socio-political risks and opportunities. By using communication to bridge differences and take action towards change, development communication can lead to successful and sustainable results.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mozammel|first=Mazud|title=Development Communication: Challenges in an Empowered Information Environment|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/Mozammel_DevComm_edit.ppt|access-date=28 August 2012}}</ref>

Development communication is a response to historic, social and economic factors that limit access to information and citizen participation. These include poverty and unemployment, limited access to basic services, remote settlement patterns, lack of access to technology, lack of information, inadequate health services, lack of education and skills and lack of infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|last=Thusong Service Centre|title=The Government Development Communication Initiative: A Response to Democratic Communication and Citizen Participation in South Africa|url=http://www.thusong.gov.za/documents/policy_legal/gdc.htm|access-date=28 August 2012}}</ref>

FAO asserted that communication can play a decisive role in promoting human development. Democracy, decentralization and the market economy empower individuals and communities to control their own destinies. Stimulating awareness, participation, and capabilities are vital. Policies must encourage effective planning and implementation of communication programs.<ref>{{cite web|last=Food and Agriculture Organization|title=Communication: A key to human development|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t1815e/t1815e01.htm|access-date=28 August 2012}}</ref>

Lee advocated that communication policies and practices require joint action among leaders in social, economic, scientific, educational and foreign affairs and that success requires constant contact and consultation with communicators and citizens.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lee|first=John|title=Towards Realistic Communication Policies: Recent Trends and Ideas Compiled and Analyzed|year=1976|publisher=The UNESCO Press|location=Paris}}</ref>

UNESCO conducted studies on communication policies as part of the resolutions adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO during its 16th session in 1970.<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001140/114046e.pdf
 | title      = Records of the General Conference, 16th Session. Resolutions adopted by the Conference and the list of officers of the Commissions and Committees. (12 October to 14 November 1970)
 | location   = Paris, France
 | year       = 1970
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref> Its objective was to promote awareness of communication policies at the governmental, institutional and professional levels of selected member states.<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000165/016578eo.pdf
 | title      = Towards Realistic Communication Policies: Recent Trends and ideas compiled and analysed
 | author     = Lee, J.
 | location   = Paris, France
 | year       = 1976
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref> The selected countries were Ireland,<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000102/010215eo.pdf
 | title      = Communication Policies in Ireland
 | author     = Stapleton, J.
 | location   = Paris, France
 | year       = 1974
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref> Sweden,<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000122/012298eo.pdf
 | title      = Communication Policies in Sweden
 | author     = Furhoff, L.
 | location   = Paris, France
 | year       = 1974
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref> Hungary,<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0000/000090/009057eo.pdf
 | title      = Communication Policies in Hungary
 | author     = Szecski, T.
 | author2    = Fedor, G.
 | location   = Paris, France
 | year       = 1974
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref> Yugoslavia,<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/Ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=20093&set=4FD7A164_3_389&gp=1&ll=1
 | title      = Communication Policies in Yugoslavia
 | author     = Autamovic, M.
 | author2    = M. Marjanovic, S.
 | author3    = Ralic, P.
 | location   = Paris, France
 | year       = 1975
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
}}</ref> West Germany,<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000122/012288eo.pdf
 | title      = Communication Policies in the Federal Republic of Germany
 | author     = Mahler, W.
 | author2    = Richter, R.
 | location   = Paris, France
 | year       = 1974
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref> and Brazil.<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000155/015595eo.pdf
 | title      = Communication Policies in Brazil
 | author     = de Camargo, N.
 | author2    = Noya Pinto, V.
 | location   = Paris, France
 | year       = 1975
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref> Two years later, a UNESCO meeting of experts on communication policies and planning defined communication policy as a set of norms established to guide the behavior of communication media.<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0000/000012/001274EB.pdf
 | title      = Meeting of Experts on Communication Policies and Planning. Working Paper. 7–28 July 1972. COM-72/CONF.8/3.
 | location   = Paris, France
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref> According to these experts, the scope of communication policies comprises:<ref>
{{cite web
 | url        = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0000/000018/001819eb.pdf
 | title      = Guidelines for Communication Policies. A paper presented to the UN Panel Meeting on Satellite Instructional Television Systems
 | author     = Naesselund, G.
 | location   = New Delhi, India
 | year       = 1972
 | publisher  = UNESCO
 | work       = UNESDOC Database
 | access-date = 9 September 2012
 }}</ref>
The values that determine the structure of communication systems and guide their operation
The systems of communication, their structures, and operation
The output of these systems and their impact and social functions

The [[Asian Media Information and Communication Centre]] (AMIC<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amic.org.sg/|title=Advertise Media in Common|website=amic.org.sg}}</ref>) was commissioned by UNESCO to do a feasibility study on "Training in Communication Planning in Asia" in 1974.<ref>
{{cite conference
 | title      = [Welcome address
|conference=AMIC-EWCI Conference on Approaches to Communication Planning : Solo, Nov. 4–8, 1979
 | author     = Sinha, P.R.R.
 | year       = 1979
|location=Singapore
|publisher=Asian Mass Communication Research & Information Centre
 |via=Nanyang Technological University
 |hdl = 10220/175 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
It organized the first AMIC Regional Conference on Development Communication Policies and Planning in [[Manila]], [[Philippines]] in May 1977. Attended by delegates from ten countries, it drew up basic recommendations including the organization of national development communication councils by each country's governmental, educational and media groups.<ref>
{{cite conference
 | title      = Genesis and development of communication planning in Southeast Asia
|conference=AMIC-EWCI Conference on Approaches to Communication Planning : Solo, Nov. 4–8, 1979.
 | author     = Emery, E.
 | year       = 1979
|location=Singapore
|publisher=Asian Mass Communication Research & Information Centre
 |via=Nanyang Technological University
 |hdl = 10220/279 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

According to Habermann and De Fontgalland, the difficulties in the adoption of a viable development communication policy have to be simultaneously analyzed horizontally and vertically. Horizontally government agencies, semi-governmental offices (e.g., rural extension service), independent development organizations and private media outlets must coordinate policy. Vertically, information must flow in both directions between the population base and decision-making bodies. This involves local and supra-local administrations that are active in handing out directives and reporting back to the government. Commonly, default policies do not encourage/require such institutions to feed information from the populace to policymakers, with the exception of government extension bureaus.<ref>
{{cite book
 | title      = Development Communication: Rhetoric and Reality as cited by Moemeka, A. (1994) Communicating for Development: A New Pan-Disciplinary Perspective. SUNY Press, pp.194–195.
 | page       = 173
 | author     = Habermann, P.
 | author2    = De Fontgalland, G.
 | location   = Singapore
 | year       = 1978
 | publisher  = AMIC
}}</ref>

In 1986 Quebral stressed the importance of equally recognizing systematic practice along with formal research as a legitimate basis for decisions. According to her, research must precede and become the foundation of policy.<ref>
{{cite conference
 | title      = Development communication training values – have they kept pace with the changing paradigm?
|conference=AMIC-WACC-WIF Consultation on Beyond Development Communication, Nov 18–22, 1986.
 | author     = Quebral, N.
 | author2    = De Fontgalland, G.
 | year       = 1986
|location=Singapore
|publisher=Asian Mass Communication Research & Information Centre
 |via=Nanyang Technological University
 |hdl = 10220/5864 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== Stakeholder analysis ===
{{Main|Stakeholder analysis}}

The design and implementation of policies is becoming more complex, and the number and type of actors involved in policy implementation more diverse;<ref name=EVAL /> hence, the policy process is evolving towards multi-actor and multi-goal situations.<ref name=CL>{{cite journal|last=Carlsson|first=L|title=Non-hierarchical Evaluation of Policy|journal=Evaluation|year=2000|volume=6|issue=2|pages=201–216|doi=10.1177/13563890022209217|s2cid=154121642}}</ref> "[[Project stakeholder|Stakeholder]]" has been variously defined according to the goal of the analysis, the analytic approach or the policy area. Where several groups of stakeholders are involved in the policy process, a stakeholder analysis can provide a useful resource.

Stakeholder analysis can help analyze the behavior, intentions, interrelations, agendas, interests and the resources of stakeholders in the policy processes.<ref name=EVAL /> Crosby described stakeholder analysis as offering methods and approaches to analyze the interests and roles of key players. Hannan and Freeman include groups or individual who can affect or be affected by the achievement of the organization's objectives, while others exclude those who cannot influence the outcome. For instance, Brugha and Varvasovszky defined stakeholder as "individuals, groups, and organizations who have an interest (stake) and the potential to influence the actions and aims of an organization, project, or policy direction."<ref name=EVAL>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mehrizi | first1 = M. H. R. | last2 = Ghasemzadeh | first2 = F. | last3 = Molas-Gallart | first3 = J. | doi = 10.1177/1356389009341731 | title = Stakeholder Mapping as an Assessment Framework for Policy Implementation | journal = Evaluation | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 427–444 | year = 2009 | hdl = 10261/104090 | s2cid = 145353042 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> According to Flor,<ref name=AGF>{{cite journal|last=Flor|first=Alexander, G.|title=Development Communication and the Policy Sciences|journal=Journal of Development Communication|date=December 1991}}</ref> a stakeholder analysis of communication policy would reveal the interplay of the following sectors:
Government – Enacts all communication policies, making it the most powerful stakeholder.
Education sector – Conducts research that underlies subsequent policies.
Communication industry – Influences communication policies. May adopt self-regulation to avoid/delay government regulation. For example, the [[Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster sa Pilipinas]] and the Philippine Press Institute institute [[ethics codes]].
Private sector – Avoid policies that limit content and to protect themselves from opponents.
Religious sector – Traditionally opposes policies that allow obscenity, violence and profanity to be distributed.
Foreign interests – e.g., international lending agencies may demand the end of monopolies—including state media entities—as a condition for financial aid.
Consumers – Traditionally not consulted, but more recently claiming to protect the public interest.

The United Nations has recognised the importance of "the need to support two-way communication systems that enable dialogue and that allow communities to express their aspirations and concerns and participate in decisions...."<ref>{{cite web|last=UNESCO|title=UN Agencies and Communication for Development|url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=21370&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=1 October 2012}}</ref> Such two-way interactions can help expose local reality.<ref>
{{cite thesis
 | url        = http://vuir.vu.edu.au/15344/
 | title      = Participatory and non-participatory modes of nutrition communication in a developing country: A case study of Nepal
 | author     = Khadka, N.
 | location   = Victoria, Australia
 | year       = 1997
 | publisher  = Unpublished PhD thesis
 | work       = Victoria University Institutional Repository
 | access-date = 4 October 2012
| type = phd
 }}</ref>
Keune and Sinha claim that community involvement in development communication policy is important, as they are the "ultimate and perhaps the most important beneficiaries of development communication policies and planning".<ref>
{{cite book
 | title      = Development Communication Policies and Planning as cited by Habermann, P. and De Fontgalland, G. (1978) Development Communication: Rhetoric and Reality. AMIC, Singapore.
 | pages       = 30–40
 | author     = Keune, R.
 | author2    = Sinha, P.R.R.
 | location   = Singapore
 | year       = 1978
 | publisher  = AMIC
}}</ref>

=== Historical perspectives ===
{{See also|History of communication}}

Cuilenburg and McQuail (2003) identify three main phases of communications policy-making:<ref name="EJC (McQuail)">{{Cite journal | last1 = Van Cuilenburg | first1 = J. | last2 = McQuail | first2 = D. | doi = 10.1177/0267323103018002002 | title = Media Policy Paradigm Shifts: Towards a New Communications Policy Paradigm | journal = European Journal of Communication | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 181–207 | year = 2003 | s2cid = 143873886 }}</ref>

Emerging Communications Industry Policy (until the Second World War)—during this era, communications policy mainly supported state and corporate benefits. Policy-covered telegraph, telephony and wireless and later, cinema.<!--what about the press?--> Policies were ad hoc measures designed to facilitate a series of technical innovations.<ref name="EJC (McQuail)" />
Public Service Media Policy (1945–1980)—After the Second World War, policy was dominated by sociopolitical rather than economic and national strategic concerns. This phase began after the Second World War. Policy expanded from addressing technical matters to the content of communications and to cover the traditional press.<ref name="EJC (McQuail)" />
New Communications Policy Paradigm (1980 to present)—Technological, economic and social trends fundamentally changed media policy from 1980 onward. Technological convergence became an agenda item when the US [[Office of Technology Assessment]] published its pioneering study, ''Critical Connections'' (OTA, 1990) followed by the European Union (CEC, 1997). "Convergence" meant that the boundaries between information technologies blurred: computer and [[telecommunications]] converged to [[telematics]]; personal computers and television become more similar; and formerly separated networks become interconnected. Regulation of mass media became increasingly linked to telecommunications regulation. Globalization and the permeability of national frontiers by multinational media limited the impact of policy in most countries.<ref name="EJC (McQuail)" />

=== Critiques ===

Development communication policy as a field experienced persistent conflict.<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams|first=R.|title=Television: Technology and Cultural Form|year=1974|publisher=Schocken Books |isbn=978-0-8052-0501-5}}</ref> Debates operated within the discourse of each period: autonomous vs. dependent in the 1950s;{{clarify|date=September 2013}} unequal North–South communication flows in the 60s and 70s; [[transnational corporation]]s and non-governmental actors in the 80s; the converged global [[information society]] and the market-based media structure in the 90s; and online media and the [[digital divide]] in the 2000s.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

==== Participation ====
Hamelink and Nordenstreng called for multistakeholder participation in [[information and communications technology]] (ICT) governance and for formal and informal policy development mechanisms to enable state and non-state actors to shape the media and communication industries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hamelink |first=C. |author2=Nordenstreng, K. |chapter=Towards Democratic Media Governance |editor=Bens, E. de. |title=Media Between Culture and Commerce |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84150-165-9 |publisher=Intellect |location=Bristol}}</ref>

==== Funding agency bias ====

Manyozo advocated a rethinking of communication for development policies, perceiving a failure by communication policy makers to identify funding institutions that encourage cultural imperialism and unequal power relations between Western and local organizations. He attributed this to the absence in communication policy debates of a political economy discourse.<ref name=":8">Manyozo, Linje (2011). Rethinking Communication for Development Policy: Some Considerations, in R. Mansell and M. Raboy (eds.), The Handbook of Global Media and Communication Policy, Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 319–335.</ref> In reviewing the different approaches to communication for development policies—media, participation and community dialogue—Manyozo criticizes groups that emphasizes one over the others.<ref name=":8" />

=== Development communication policy science ===

Development communication and the policy sciences provide a distinct role of development communication that is apart from traditional mass communication, its purposive nature (Flor, 1991). With this, communication strategies deemed at sustainable development are hereby presented (Servaes & Malikhao (2007):
a) Behavior Change Communication (BCC, interpersonal communication)
b) Mass Communication (MC, mix of community media, mass media and ICTs)
c) Advocacy Communication (AC, mix of interpersonal and/or mass communication)
d) Participatory Communication (PC, interpersonal communication and community media)

Flor (1991) argues the importance of application of knowledge in social sciences where most of policy principles are drawn from. In the conduct of developmental activities, the role of communication is critical as it influences participation of individuals given that relevant information is well-disseminated. For instance, communication media are critical in creating awareness, generating public interest and demand, and placing the issue on the public agenda and building social support (Servaes, 2008).<ref>Servaes, J. (2008). Communication Policies, Good Governance and Development Journalism. University of South Africa PRESS {{doi|10.1080/02500160902906653}}</ref>

Development communication policy science take off from development theory that which it says that policy recommendation becomes an engine to the process of social change<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jan|first1=Servaes|s2cid=144370858|title=Development Theory and Communication Policy: Power to the People!|journal=European Journal of Communication|volume=1|issue=2|pages=203–229|doi=10.1177/0267323186001002006|year=1986}}</ref> (Servaes, 1986).  The concept of development communication policy science has reference to the following:
a) Diffusion model which enunciates that 'the role of communication was (1) to transfer technological innovations from development agencies to their clients, and (2) to create an appetite for change through raising a 'climate for modernization' among the members of the public'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Everett|first1=Rogers|title=Communication technology: the new media in society|publisher=The Free Press|location=New York}}</ref>
b) The participatory model which incorporates the concept of multiplicity development through democratization and participation at all levels – international, national, local and individual but values the cultural identity of local communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jan|first1=Servaes|title=Development communication – for whom and for what? Communication|journal=Communicatio|volume=21|pages=39–49|doi=10.1080/02500169508537827|year=1995}}</ref>

A typology of Participation in Development Initiatives illustrates a participation ladder (Mefalopulos, 2018) starting from the lowest form which is merely a form of token participation, to the highest form, where local stakeholders share equal weight in decision making with external stakeholders. The participation ladder consists of the following: (a) Passive participation. Stakeholders participate by being informed about what is going to happen or has already happened. People's feedback is minimal or nonexistent, and individual participation is assessed mainly through head-counting and occasionally through their participation in the discussion. (b) Participation by consultation Stakeholders participate by providing feedback to questions posed by outside researchers or experts. Because their input is not limited to meetings, it can be provided at different points in time. In the final analysis, however, this consultative process keeps all the decision-making power in the hands of external professionals who are under no obligation to incorporate stakeholders' input. (c) Functional participation. Stakeholders take part in discussions and analysis of pre-determined objectives set by the project. This kind of participation, while it does not usually result in dramatic changes on "what" objectives are to be achieved, does provide valuable inputs on "how" to achieve them. Functional participation implies the use of horizontal communication among stakeholders. (d) Empowered participation. Stakeholders are willing and able to be part of the process and participate in joint analysis, which leads to joint decision making about what should be achieved and how. While the role of outsiders is that of equal partners in the initiative, local stakeholders are equal partners with a decisive say in decisions concerning their lives.<ref>Mefalopulos, Paulo (2008). Development Communication Sourcebook: Broadening the Boundaries of Communication. World Bank. Retrieved from:http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMMENG/Resources/DevelopmentCommSourcebook.pdf</ref>
Flor recognizes the affinity of Development Communication and Policy Science; hence coined "Development Communication Policy Science". In his writings, this concept can be deduced to mean creating guidelines that "stems from the need for actively applying knowledge from and principles of the social sciences in solving large-scale societal problems under conditions of social change" and of which in the process communication is a critical variable.<ref name=":2">Flor, Alexander G. (December 1991). [https://www.academia.edu/578845/Development_Communication_and_the_Policy_Sciences "Development Communication and the Policy Sciences".] ''Journal of Development Communication'', Kuala Lumpur: Asian Institute of Development Communication.</ref>

UNESCO posits that in order to effect positive developmental change, there is a need to form people and processes that facilitate the creation of knowledge.  For development to happen, a two-way horizontal model which allow direct participation of those most affected by the development issue(s) can be adopted. In this model, the stakeholder's participation are in a form of defining and implementing solutions and identifying development directions. Engaging in dialogue with stakeholders for purposes of understanding their perceptions, perspectives, values, attitudes and practices are essential inputs to the design and implementation of development initiatives.<ref>{{cite book|last1=UNESCO|title=Communication for Development and Social Change|date=2008|publisher=SAGE Publications|location=India}}</ref>

Development communication policy science is a thriving and a contemporary field in social sciences.<ref name=Calhoun2011>{{Cite journal |last=Calhoun |first=Craig |date=2011 |title=Communication as Social Science (and More) |journal=International Journal of Communication |volume=5 |pages=1479–1496 |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/ahcs/files/ahcs/communication_as_social_science_and_more.pdf |access-date=2018-02-21}}</ref> It is the application of the policy sciences to improve policy development, implementation and evaluation in the development communication context. According to Flor (1991), development communication and policy sciences are regarded as distinct and mutually exclusive areas of study but are inextricably linked. He added that development communication and the policy sciences, although different in scope, stem from the same rationale: the need for actively applying knowledge from the principles<ref name=Calhoun2011 /> of social sciences in solving large-scale societal problems under conditions of social change.<ref name=":2" /> Separately, development communication is a purposive, pragmatic, and value-laden development intervention while the policy sciences are the scientific study of policies and policy-making for the social good.<ref name=":2" /> Both endorse a normative or prescriptive role for the social sciences, work to alleviate societal problems and recognize communication's important function (Ongkiko & Flor, 2006). As an academic discipline, development communication policy science is the study of the use of the art and the science of policy in the development communication context.
Development communication's ultimate goal is to catalyze local development activities, local development planning and implementation, and local communication to smoothen the path to development. It is the science which uses communication to educate, change and motivate people's attitudes and values leading to developmental goals<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cfamedia.org/main/|title=Communication Foundation for Asia {{!}} Media for Total Human Development|website=cfamedia.org|language=en|access-date=2017-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506074737/http://cfamedia.org/main/|archive-date=6 May 2017}}</ref> Policy is a term which frames the action rather than simply describing it (Colebatch, 2002).<ref>Colebatch, H.K. (2002). Policy. PA: Open University Press</ref> Thus, it labels what we see so that we can make sense of it in a particular way. Understanding policy means understanding the way in which practitioners use it to shape action. It leads us to ask who is involved in what setting, how the action is framed and what significance in this process of the idea of authorized purpose, and not simply an outcome. Indeed, the "approach of the policy science is forward-looking and anticipatory".

Thus, development communication comprises the utilization of strategic communication to address the pressing issues and problems in the society. It is an area of study where the roles of media to aid in the social transformation is considered an utmost importance.<ref>Wilkins, K. G. (2007). Development communication. Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice. 8(1).</ref> According to Melkotea and Steeves (2015),<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/17447143.2015.1050030|title = Place and role of development communication in directed social change: A review of the field|year = 2015|last1 = Melkote|first1 = Srinivas|last2 = Steeves|first2 = H. Leslie|s2cid = 146658673|journal = Journal of Multicultural Discourses|volume = 10|issue = 3|pages = 385–402}}</ref> while communication has been referred to as shared meaning, development is considered as empowerment in the development communication, where it seeks to understand the social issues at all levels.

The two fields are undoubtedly different. However, Flor<ref name=":2"/> accurately stated that "both stem from the same rationale: the need for actively applying knowledge and principles of the social sciences in solving large-scale societal problems under conditions of social change". The connection between the two fields will be apparent once the question, 'what is the policy for?' is answered. Since policy is the pursuit of goals and the effect they have on the action; and development communication aims to facilitate social change, the two processes are represented as a sequence of stages in the development, beginning with the thought and the intention (policy), moving through action brought about by communication, and ending with the solution (action). To reiterate, unless the policy decision could shape the action, there would be no point in making it.

When policy sciences and development communication have been firmly established in an organization or community, the instruments of policy analysis will provide "unprecedented versatility and effectiveness" (Lasswell, 1969).<ref>Lasswell, H. (1969). A Preview of policy sciences. http://www.policysciences.org/classics/preview.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924075209/http://www.policysciences.org/classics/preview.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}.</ref> Specifically, the practice and application of social marketing strategies to influence the stakeholders in making decisions to create not only an individual but also social change.

It is important to know and understand that the stakeholders are not only the decision makers alone. Flor (1991) identified seven sectors as stakeholders: the government, the education sector, the communication, industry, the private sector, the church, foreign vested interests and the consumers.  Flor discussed the different concerns of each sectors such as the education sector for its involvement in communication aspect; the church, in fulfillment of its outreach activities; and the private sectors concerning how policies would affect how they do business. But among the enumerated sectors, the government still serves as the most powerful sector as it has a direct hand in implementing policies. While the government is the most powerful, the most important stakeholder, but apparently the least involved in development of a policy, is actually the consumer or the regular citizens. While the government may impose a policy or a regulation, the success of it falls on the adoption and cooperation of the consumers.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301584726 |title=Development Communication and the Policy Sciences |first=Alexander G. |last=Flor |date=December 1991 |journal=Journal of Development Communication}}</ref>

Development communication is a contemporary field in social science.<ref name="Flor, A. 1998">Flor, A. & Ongkiko I. (1998) Introduction to Development Communication. UPOU.</ref> It uses scientific methods to enrich its own field through research where theories and principles can be derived and applied to development problems.<ref name="Flor, A. 1998"/> It is defined as the interaction of two social processes- development and communication-in any given environment, and in 1971, the definition changed to the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger fulfillment of the human potential.<ref name="southbound.com.my">Quebral. N. C. (2012) Development Communication Primer. Southbound. Penang. 
http://www.southbound.com.my/downloads/quebralcruzprimer2012.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222121806/http://www.southbound.com.my/downloads/quebralcruzprimer2012.pdf |date=22 December 2018 }}</ref> Its domain is best described by the phrase 'communication and development'. This suggests that both mediated and non-mediated forms of communication are relevant to the development issue. This compromise is especially useful with the growing importance for development of the new information and communication technologies.<ref name="unesco.org">Servaes, J. (ed.) (2002). Approaches to Development Communication, Paris: UNESCO
http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/approaches_to_development_communication.pdf</ref> The main scope and functions of development communication are not exclusively about communicating information and messages, but it also involves engaging stakeholders and assessing the situation. Communication is not only about "selling ideas." Such a conception could have been appropriate in the past, currently, the scope of development communication has broadened to include an analytical aspect as well as a dialogical one—intended to open public spaces where perceptions, opinions, and knowledge of relevant stakeholders can be aired and assessed. It is applied to engage stakeholders, assess the situation, and devise effective strategies leading to better and more sustainable development initiatives. It is more than transmitting information. It is about using communication to generate new knowledge and consensus in order to facilitate change.<ref>Mefalopulos, Paolo. 2008. Development Communication Sourcebook : Broadening the Boundaries of Communication (English). Washington, DC: World Bank. 
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/752011468314090450/Development-communication-sourcebook-broadening-the-boundaries-of-communication
</ref> Between the two social processes, Communication is the vehicle that carries development onward.<ref name="southbound.com.my"/> Quebral (2012) mentioned in the definition of Development Communication the art and science of human communication.<ref name="southbound.com.my"/> The science of communication is a research-driven consultative process involving planning, design and implementation of strategic interventions. It provides relevant information and adequate motivation to impact on attitudes and behaviors of individuals or groups of people. The artistic side of communication involves designing creative messages and products, and identifying effective interpersonal, group and mass-media channels based on the sound knowledge of the participants we seek to reach.<ref>Strategic Communication for Behavior and Social Change in South Asia. (2005).UNICEF. Nepal.  https://www.unicef.org/cbsc/files/Strategic_Communication_for_Behaviour_and_Social_Change.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830041201/https://www.unicef.org/cbsc/files/Strategic_Communication_for_Behaviour_and_Social_Change.pdf |date=30 August 2017 }}\</ref> Communication for Development is a social process based on dialogue using a broad range of tools and methods. It is also about seeking change at different levels, including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building policies, debating and learning for sustained and meaningful change.<ref>World Congress on Communication for Development. (2007) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. http://www.fao.org/3/a-ai143e.pdf</ref>

Development Communication and Policy Sciences are inextricably linked.<ref>Flor, A. (1991). Development Communication and the Policy Sciences. Journal of Development Communication. Asian Institute of Development Communication https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301584726_Development_Communication_and_the_Policy_Sciences</ref> Policy Sciences grew out of a multidisciplinary effort within the social sciences, based initially at the University of Chicago and later at the Social Science Research Council (SSRC), to develop theories and methods of integrating insights from multiple disciplines in the interest of providing a distinct integrative framework for understanding and addressing complex social problems. The University of Chicago and SSRC developments were themselves an outgrowth of earlier efforts that dated to at least the middle of the 19th century.<ref>Wallace, R. & Clark, S. (2014) Convergent Evolution in the Interest of Integrative Problem Solving: Connecting the Policy Sciences and Interdisciplinary Studies
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1117906.pdf
</ref>). It is a new set of paradigm which is oriented towards the needs of applying structured rationality, systematic knowledge and organized creativity to the directed development of humanity.<ref name="apps.dtic.mil">Dror, Y. (1970) From Management Sciences to Policy Sciences 
https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/708096.pdf</ref> The main concern of Policy Sciences is with understanding and improvement of macro control systems, which is, policy making systems. Policy making is not about its substantive content but rather with the improved methods, knowledge, and systems for better policy making.<ref name="apps.dtic.mil"/> In 1971, Lasswell's identified two separate approaches to the policy sciences: one emphasizing in knowledge of the policy process and another emphasizing knowledge for use in the policy process.  Lasswell's chosen phrase was "the policy sciences of democracy". To stress "sciences" resulted in a vision of rational analysis, while to stress 'democracy; led to a vision of politicizes governmental processes. The distinction is important in drawing attention to policy analysis as an academic activity concerned primarily with advancing understanding; and policy analysis as applied activity concerned mainly with contributing to the solution of social problems. This vision of scientific method and democratic humanism, however, proved operationally difficult as the policy sciences moved to realize status and recognition during the 1960 and 1970's. These two approaches- process and content strengthened their respective identities, each claiming some sort of conceptual superiority. Operationally the two approaches are: POLICY ANALYSIS is concerned with knowledge in and for policy process, while, POLICY PROCESS is concerned with knowledge about the formation and implementation of public policy.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGuQsMTx8ekC&q=policy+sciences+lasswell&pg=PA27 |title = Public Policy|isbn = 978-81-207-2703-8|last1 = Sapru|first1 = R. K.|year = 2004| publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. }}</ref> Policy analysis and Policy process focus on real-world problems and require application of both normative and behavioral sciences. The underlying disciplines of policy sciences are the management sciences (operations research, cost-effective analysis, systems analysis, economics and more) and the behavioral sciences (political science, sociology, social psychology, organization theory, behavioral [[theory of the firm]], psychology of judgment and more). The management sciences can be viewed as sciences of normative knowledge- what one should do with the application of their methodologies involving optimization of some objective function.<ref>Lewin, A. & Shakun, M. (1976). Policies Sciences: Methodologies and Cases. Pergamon Press Inc. New York.</ref>

Policy Sciences has long been at the forefront of development issues.<ref>Policy Sciences Integrating Knowledge and Practice to Advance Human Dignity For All
http://www.policysciences.org/
</ref> while, Development Communication's chief purpose is about social transformation and development, the fulfillment of basic needs.<ref name="Flor, A. 1998"/> Both fields, development communication and policy sciences are concerned with scientific methods, and choosing and evaluating the relevance of available knowledge for the solution of particular problems that will enrich humanity. In essence, development communication is the sharing of knowledge aimed at reaching a consensus for action that takes into account the interests, needs and capacities of all concerned. It is thus a social process.<ref name="unesco.org"/> While, Policy Sciences hold forth the hope of improving the most backward of all human institutions and habits, which is policy making and decision making. It constitutes a major attempt to assert and achieve a central role for rationality and intellectualism in human affairs and to increase by jumps the capacity of humanity to direct its future.<ref name="apps.dtic.mil"/>

==== Policy sciences ====
Policy sciences provide an integrated approach in solving various problems in local, national, regional and international level. Coined by Harold D. Lasswell, policy sciences draw knowledge from various disciplines where recommendations are formulated, hence, its integrated approach. Because of its integrative nature, policy sciences follow a systems approach such that elements are interrelated and forms a 'generality principle'.

Following its interdisciplinary nature is the idea that policy sciences encourage diversity of perspectives from various disciplines. This instigates consultative communication from various individuals in the principle of common interest.

In the pursuit of knowledge, policy scientists need to be careful in deciphering relevance of particular knowledge given the impact of various knowledge sources that are trying to influence policy decisions. In this regard, informed decisions are drawn from critiquing, careful analysis and recommendations that will be beneficial to many rather than a few individuals. 
<ref>Gale, T. (2008). Policy Sciences. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Retrieved from www.encyclopedia.com</ref>

Lasswell (1970: 3)<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Pre-view of Policy Sciences|last=Lasswell|first=Harold|publisher=American Elsevier|year=1970|location=New York|page=3}}</ref> defines policy sciences as ''knowledge of the policy process as well as knowledge in this process''. Torgerson (1985)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Torgerson|first=Douglas|s2cid=145404786|date=1985|title=Contextual Orientation in Policy Analysis: The Contribution of Harold D. Lasswell|journal=Policy Sciences|volume=18|issue=3|pages=241–261|doi=10.1007/BF00138911}}</ref> states that Lasswell proposed the development of policy science-or policy sciences-as an interdisciplinary field to embrace all the social sciences and to produce knowledge applicable to public problems. The term "policy sciences" in its plural form, therefore, emphasizes its interdisciplinary nature (Flor, 1991). According to Hale (2011),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hale|first=Ben|date=2011|title=The methods of applied philosophy and the tools of the policy sciences|journal=International Journal of Applied Philosophy|volume=25|issue=2|pages=215–232|doi=10.5840/ijap201125219}}</ref> the central aim of policy sciences is to resolve problems [in the service of human dignity] and the diverse human, historical, and contextual element in public policy-making. This is a reiteration of the Lasswellian maxim on public policy in the following key elements: "contextual"; "problem-oriented"; "multi-method inquiry" or diverse empirical methods, "political", "normative, welfare-oriented" in the case of social policy goals; and posing "interdisciplinarity" or moving between humanities and social sciences. Indeed, Lasswell's original goal of the policy sciences was to provide, "intelligence pertinent to the integration of values realized by and embodied by interpersonal relations [such as] human dignity and the realization of human capacities" (Lasswell and Kaplan, 1950: p. xii).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Power and Society|last1=Lasswell |first1=Harold |last2=Kaplan |first2=Abraham |publisher=Yale University Press|year=1950|location=New Haven, CT}}</ref> The "policy sciences" therefore adopts an approach to understanding and solving problems that draw on and contribute to all fields of knowledge (Quebral, 2006)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Quebral|first=Nora|date=2006|title=Development Communication in a Borderless World|journal=Glocal Times|volume=3|pages=1–5}}</ref> and sets out procedures in an integrated and comprehensive form to help clarify and secure common interests.

According to [[Harold Lasswell]] (1971), the policy sciences are concerned with the knowledge ''of'' and ''in'' the decision processes of the public and civic order.<ref name="Laswell, H.D. 1971">Laswell, H.D. (1971). [http://www.policysciences.org/classics/preview.pdf A Preview of Policy Sciences] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924075209/http://www.policysciences.org/classics/preview.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}. American Elsevier.</ref> Knowledge of decision processes points to the empirical and scientific understanding of how policies are made and executed. At one moment, the analyst regards his subject-matter as an objective phenomenon, but this phase alternates with another in which the analyst comes to view himself as actively involved in the phenomenon which he investigates. Inquiry displays both tension and interplay between these moments; they are distinct yet interwoven, complementary in the ongoing development and refinement of contextual orientation (Togerson, 1985). Empirical knowledge pertains to those generated through scientific inquiry and observation as applied to decision processes. As such, the notion of the policy sciences is construed in various shades since it was introduced in the 1940s and over the years, Lasswell and his colleagues refined the concept, through practice and peer review, as the intellectual tools needed to support problem-oriented, contextual, and multi-method inquiry in the service of human dignity for all.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/TheUniversity/Committees/SPS/F/courses/psci5076.html|title=Introduction to the Policy Sciences|last=Brunner|first=Ronald|date=1996|website=PSCI5076: Introduction to Policy Sciences|publisher=University of Colorado|access-date=28 March 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000158/http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/TheUniversity/Committees/SPS/F/courses/psci5076.html}}</ref> The policy sciences is a forward-looking body of knowledge, with the plural form emphasizing its interdisciplinary and holistic nature.<ref>Allen (1978), cited in Flor, Alexander (1991). Development Communication and the Policy Sciences. ''Journal of Development Communication''. Kuala Lumpur: Asian Institute of Development Communication</ref> It recognizes the multiplicity of factors affecting certain problems and multi-dimensions of certain phenomena that are subject to decision processes.<ref name=":2" /> According to Laswell (1971, p.&nbsp;39),<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Pre-View of Policy Sciences|last=Lasswell|first=Harold|publisher=American Elsevier Publishing Company|year=1971|location=New York}}</ref> an adequate strategy of problem solving in policy sciences encompasses five intellectual tasks performed at varying levels of insight and understanding namely: goal clarification; trend description; analysis of conditions; projection of developments; and invention, evaluation, and selection of alternatives. As such, the emphasis of policy sciences is on applying scientific or empirical evidences in understanding problems so that more realistic, responsive and effective interventions are identified and implemented.  Since a problem is multidimensional, various scientific disciplines are needed to form a comprehensive analysis of a certain phenomenon. The trend toward a policy sciences viewpoint is a move away from fragmentation and the fragmented "worm's eye view" of policy matters.<ref name="Laswell, H.D. 1971" />

According to Yehezkel Dror in his article entitled, "Approaches to Policy Sciences," two of the main features of policy sciences can be summarized as follows:
1) Policy sciences, as with all applied scientific knowledge, are, in principle, instrumental-normative in the sense of being concerned with means and intermediate goals rather than absolute values. But policy sciences are sensitive to the difficulties of achieving "value free sciences" and try to contribute to value choice by exploring value implications, value consistencies, value costs, and the behavioral foundations of value commitments.
2) Policy sciences emphasize meta-policies (that is, policies on policies), including modes of policy-making, policy analysis, policy-making systems, and policy strategies. While the main test of policy sciences is better achievement of considered goals through more effective and efficient policies, policy sciences as such do not deal with discrete policy problems, but do provide improved methods and knowledge for doing so. Furthermore, he mentioned that the main foci of concern for policy sciences include, for example, (i) policy analysis, which provides heuristic methods for identification of preferable policy alternatives; (ii) policy strategies, which provide guidelines for postures, assumptions, and main guidelines to be followed by specific policies (for example, with respect to incrementalism versus innovation, attitudes to risk and time, comprehensive versus shock policies, and goal-oriented versus capacity oriented policies); (iii) evaluation and feedback, including, for instance, social indicators, social experimentation, and organizational learning; and (iv) improvement of the system for policymaking-by redesign and sometimes nova design (designing anew), including changes in input, personnel, structure, equipment, external demands, and so forth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dror |first1=Yehezkel |title=Approaches to Policy Sciences |journal=Science |year=1969 |volume=166 |issue=3902 |pages=272–3 |doi=10.1126/science.166.3902.272 |pmid=17731493|doi-access= }}</ref>

As defined by Laswell (1970),<ref>Lasswell, H. D. (1970). The emerging conception of policy sciences. Policy Sciences (1) 3–14.</ref> the policy sciences may be conceived as knowledge of the policy process and of the relevance of knowledge in the process. Its approach is anticipatory which aims to improve policymaking in order to provide as much lead time as necessary in the solution of societal problems.<ref name="Flor, A. G. 1991">Flor, A. G. (1991). Development communication and the policy sciences. Journal of Development Communication.</ref> However, it should be considered that since it is a science, the knowledge that can be acquired in the process should be based on the concept of scientific evidence. Therefore, one issue that may arise along the way is how to regard societal problems and issues scientifically. However, according to Lasswell and McDougal (1992),<ref>Lasswell, Harold, and Myres McDougal. (1992) Jurisprudence for a Free Society: Studies in Law, Science and Policy. (2 vols.) West Haven, CT: University of New Haven Press.</ref> while the problems are addressed scientifically, there is also a need for considering the contextual and normative approach to solving problems. The reason is that the knowledge produced is not only universalizable but ethical and empirico-analytical. Through this, policy science is thought not only problem-oriented but also multidisciplinary and contextual.<ref>Dror, Y. (1970). Prolegomena to Policy Sciences.  Policy Sciences, Volume 1.</ref>

Generally, the relationship between development communication and the policy sciences can be described as inextricable<ref name="Flor, A. G. 1991"/> although both fields of study have different concentration, scope, and limitations. Furthermore, both development communication and the policy sciences share the same practice: the need for actively applying knowledge from and principles of the social sciences in solving large-scale societal problems under conditions of social change.<ref name="Flor, A. G. 1991"/> In today's society where it is being described as troubled and problematic, there is no better way to confront the societal issues but to have a strong knowledge and a better understanding of communication policy.

In the context of communication policy development, the policy sciences are necessary to make more purposeful, responsive, and effective communication policies. Profoundly influenced by Freud and Marx, Lasswell emphasized the importance of the contextual orientation of policy analysts, both individually and collectively (Lasswell, 1965). When he first articulated this principle of contextuality, Lasswell indeed referred explicitly to the "exposition of the dialectical method" (1965)<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World Revolution of Our Time: A Framework for Basic Policy Research|last=Harold D. Lasswell|first=in Harold Lasswell and Daniel Lerner (Eds) World Revolutionary Elites|publisher=MIT Press|year=1965|location=Cambridge, MA|pages=29–96}}</ref> in Lukacs's ''History and Class Consciousness'', adding that the insights of psychoanalysis provided a complement to the Marxian dialectic which would aid in understanding "the symbolic aspects of historical development" (Laswell, 1965, p.&nbsp;19). Here Lasswell proposed a mode of contextual-configurative analysis whereby, through "an act of creative orientation" (Laasswell, 1965, p.&nbsp;13), the inquirer could locate himself in an 'all-encompassing totality" (Lasswell, 1965, p.&nbsp;12). In this regard, Lasswell considered such contextual orientation indispensable to the conduct of rational inquiry, and urged the use of contextual-configurative analysis in the development of a policy science profession. Hale (2011, p.&nbsp;221)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hale|first=Ben|date=2011|title=The Methods of Applied Philosophy and the Tools of the Policy Sciences|url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/admin/publication_files/2011.37.pdf|journal=International Journal of Applied Philosophy|volume=25|issue=2|pages=215–232|doi=10.5840/ijap201125219}}</ref> contends that Lasswell saw that robust policy solutions could only be obtained by insisting upon a commitment to contextuality, problem orientation, and methodological diversity. All for good reasons: first, no decision can adequately be understood apart from the larger social process in which it is itself apart. Thus '''contextuality''' is a key element in the policy sciences. As a reliance on ideology, principle, and grand historical projects cannot, given the complexity and contextuality of policy problems, serve with reliable solution, a discipline geared to resolve problems should expressly orient itself on those problems and should be purposeful. Thus '''problem orientation''' is the second key element in the policy sciences. Finally, due to the multidimensionality and complexity of many of these problems it stands to reason that the policy scientist should draw from a diversity of methodologies. Thus '''methodological diversity''' is the third key element in the policy sciences. It is Lasswell's sincere belief that understanding the policy formation and decision-making process will eventually also be beneficial in the creation of public policy (Hale, 2011).

[https://tidsskrift.dk/mediekultur/article/view/21614 Hepp, A., Roitsch, C., & Berg, M. (2016)] introduces the approach of contextualised communication network analysis as a qualitative procedure for researching communicative relationships realised through the media. It combines qualitative interviews on media appropriation, egocentric network maps, and media diaries. Through the triangulation of these methods of data collection, it is possible to gain a differentiated insight into the specific meanings, structures and processes of communication networks across a variety of media. The approach is illustrated using a recent study dealing with the mediatisation of community building among young people. In this context, the qualitative communication network analysis has been applied to distinguish "localists" from "centrists", "multilocalists", and "pluralists". These different "horizons of mediatised communitisation" are connected to distinct communication networks. Since this involves today a variety of different media, the contextual analysis of communication networks necessarily has to imply a cross-media perspective.

To guide communication policy-makers in addressing challenges, Picard and Pickard (2017)<ref>Picard, R.G. and Pickard, V. (2017). Essential Principles for Contemporary Media and Communications Policymaking. Retrieved from https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2017-11/Essential%20Principles%20for%20Contemporary%20Media%20and%20Communications%20Policymaking.pdf</ref> proposed policy principles that aim to guide contemporary media and communications policymaking in democratic countries so the contributions of these operations and systems to society may be improved.   They maintain that "Media and communications policies are central to many of the social and political issues that societies face today." However, existing policies are often unable to respond to rapid technological, economic, political, and social developments because they address only particular media and communication challenges at a particular time.  On the other hand, fundamental principles are constant, thus providing guidance on how to respond to new concerns and challenges and making appropriate policies.

Picard and Pickard (2017)<ref name="Picard, Robert G 2017">Picard, Robert G. and Pickard, Victor (2017). Essential Principles for Contemporary Media and Communications Policymaking. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. University of Oxford Press.</ref> note that "policy principles are coherent statements based on underlying norms and values that help policymakers and organisations respond to issues and take part in legislative and regulatory activities". In practice, principles are articulated and then used to set policy objectives and determine the means to achieve them. The latter two stages opine Picard and Pickard (2017), are subjected to ''political'' processes that determine the final policy outcome.

Picard and Pickard (2017)<ref name="Picard, Robert G 2017"/> therefore came up with the following rubric list of potential principles that they believe are crucial in crafting a much reflective communication policy:

# Meeting fundamental communication and content needs;
# Providing effective ability for public use of media and communications;
# Promoting diversity/plurality in ownership of media and content available;
# Affording protection for users and society;
# Providing transparency and accountability;
# Pursuing developmental and economic benefits; and
# Pursuing equitable and effective policy outcomes.

The authors (Picard and Pickard, 2017) disaggregated these key principles as follows:

Principles are therefore not neutral, because they are normative, reflecting specific values that are subject to contestation. In choosing among policy principles, Picard and Pickard (2017)<ref name="Picard, Robert G 2017"/> assert that policymakers should optimally be concerned about ''effects of policy on all stakeholders'', giving primacy to fundamental communication ''needs'' of society and seeking to ''balance'' social and economic benefit.

"Communication and Culture, Conflict and Cohesion" is a book edited by Alexander G. Flor (2002), an expert on Knowledge Management for Development, which discusses the need for convergence in society through inter-cultural communication, using case studies in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. It also examines environmental conflicts, indigenous peoples, and the [[official development assistance]] in the Philippines. In the book, Flor noted that communication and culture are "inextricably linked". Societal conflict in this age of informatization is a "function of culture caused by a dysfunction of societal communication". The quality and degree of societal communication – the mass media and education—determine the ways that cultures are exposed to others. The higher the quality and degree of inter-cultural communication, the lower the propensity for conflict, and vice versa. He observed that many of the world's contemporary wars – in Rwanda, Basque, Bosnia, Kosovo, Chechnya, Afghanistan, Aceh, East Timor—are not being waged by national political struggles "but by cultures". For example, Catholic bishops and Islam ulama agree that the conflict in the island of Mindanao in the Philippines is triggered by "opposing value systems (on the use of natural resources), opposing social structures (feudal vs. oligarchic), and opposing worldviews (materialistic vs. idealistic)" – all of which, Flor noted, are components of culture. One of the first steps to help repair the situation is for communication policy scientists to "begin with tolerance as a short-term solution, and understanding as a long-term solution". Tolerance and understanding require "good communication" from both ends of the spectrum that are striving to achieve "mutual understanding" – the goal of Kincaid (1979) for communication in his Convergence Model. The concept of convergence looks at the communication process as cyclical between source and receiver, and interactive between their message and feedback. "With convergence comes cohesion." Mutual understanding achieved through communication helps preclude conflicts, and encourages cohesion among the world's cultures.

<ref>Flor, Alexander G. (2002). Communication and Culture, Conflict and Cohesion. University of the Philippines-Los Banos College of Development Communication, and the Foundation for Development & Communication, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.https://www.academia.edu/179751/Communication_and_Culture_Conflict_and_Cohesion</ref>
<ref>Kincaid, D. Lawrence (1979). The Convergence Model of Communication. Institute of Communication & Culture, University of Hawaii East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii.</ref>

==== Communication policy science ====
The atmosphere of participation created by recent administrations has brought about a more significant role for the development communication specialist/ policy scientist. His involvement in communication policymaking is facilitated by the so-called institutionalization of people power. His expertise may be directly tapped by the most important stakeholder, the media consumer. The participation of information users and media consumers in policy making may be realized by the formation of a nationwide media consumer's organization or a federation of local organizations of this nature in which policy analysts play a significant role. This proposed organization could initiate media education in the formal and non-formal modes. Media education at the formal level may be facilitated by lobbying for the inclusion of such in existing secondary and tertiary curricula. Non-formal education may be conducted through media consumer sponsored awareness campaigns. This organization could also conduct its own audience related studies and policy research. It could establish a nationwide network involving the church, academic communities, grassroots organizations and cause-oriented groups. Communication policy scientists may also serve as part of the staff of our legislators in the Congress and Senate. In their private capacities, they can form research and development outfits or "think tanks" whose services may be availed of by government agencies. Indeed, now is a fortuitous time for policy engagement in development communication.<ref name=":2"/>

Culture, politics, economics and technology have an impact on policy decisions.  In order to investigate the factors that influence communications policy, one has to go beyond conventional views of media and communication and should combine these with policy studies.

According to experts, communication policy science would be understood if the public just had access to the right scientific information. Coyle, in his article "Theory of Development Communication", articulates that people have options to change their ways of life through communication. People improve their lives and ways of thinking through communication, sharing their perspectives and understanding what is going on in their surroundings. As highlighted by Flor, communication development has something to do with policy science as these are anchored for improving policy making.

As stipulated in Walt Rostow's theory in Boado's article, societies progress through specific stages of development on their way to modernity. Policy makers and scientists can communicate directly with the public through social media and blogging. By using social media outlets such as Twitter and Facebook, policymakers and scientists can serve as critical mediators in disseminating scientific information by sharing advancements directly with society.

=====Communication policy and its dimensions=====

Citing an article, "Dimensions of an Information and Communication Policy": "for a national policy to be effective, it must attempt to be comprehensive, covering issues that are considered relevant for that particular society". Because it involves communication, the use of many forms is deemed important, such as traditional and indigenous cultural forms, print media, electronic/broadcast media, film, cinema among others. Such communication policy must be centered on development, in transforming the lives of marginalized people. Development encompasses economic benefits, health improvement, education and other transformative agents. The process involves people empowerment in identifying goals, needs, and solutions to various challenges. Thus, communication policy that is national in scope has broad objective dimensions as well as specific areas where community needs are addressed. Intervention of communication strategies such as dissemination of information both mediated and personal where the latter constitutes participatory communication is deemed important.

John A.R. Lee, author of ''Towards Realistic Communication Policies: Recent Trends and Ideas Compiled and Analysed'', published by The Unesco Press, shares that every state or nation carries communication policies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000165/016578eo.pdf|title=Towards Realistic Communication Policies: Recent Trends and Ideas Compiled and Analysed|last=Lee|first=John|date=1976|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120001913/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000165/016578eo.pdf|archive-date=20 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> These policies are stated/embedded in "legislation, conditions, codes of conduct, rules and proceedings" or implied/suggested "in accepted practices." He adds that they are present "at the national, institutional and professional levels."

By citing a Unesco report made by experts on communication and planning, Lee defines communication policies as "sets of principles and norms established to guide<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/home/en|title=Home &#124; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=FAOHome}}</ref> the behaviour of communication systems."

He adds that the dimensions of communication policies as well as communication planning encompass the communication system, its components and structures; the functions of the system; the "clients" or audience using the system; the types of information carried by the system and its components; the values and qualities of the information content; and a variety of considerations about the system, its functions, audience, types of information and qualities. Members of the audience are classified based on such characteristics as age, sex, occupations, socio-economic strata, urban-rural (locations) and persuasions. Types of information refer to the conversation, cultural forms, data, education, entertainment, general information, music, news and opinion. Meanwhile, truth, objectivity, relevance, educational effectiveness, violence, humour, sex, libel are examples of values and qualities of the information content.

According to Lee, the "consideration, identification and determination" of the scope of specific communication systems and societal principles and norms are needed in formulating communication policies.

In his paper, Lee also discusses participation in the formulation of communication policies by asking, "Who is involved?" and identifying the stakeholders. They are government executive, legislative bodies, authorities in charge of social and economic planning, individual ministries and their planning boards, communication enterprises, professional organizations, the citizen, the social scientist and the economist.

E. Lloyd Sommerland, UNESCO Regional Communication Adviser for Asia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0003/000397/039772eb.pdf|title=Why a Communication Policy and Plan|last=Sommerland|first=E. Lloyd|date=1976}}</ref> points out the difference between communication policies and communication planning by saying that the former provides "the principles, rules and guidelines on which the communication system is built," while the latter is concerned with the policy implementation.

He shares that every country engages in development planning that touches different sectors of a society like "agriculture, manufacturing, commerce, education, health, transport and communication, social and community services." At the heart of these plans for development is communication. "Communication is part and parcel of this whole process of development and needs its own infrastructure," said Summerland. The word "communication" in this particular context includes telecommunications, mass media (print and broadcast), face-to-face communication and traditional channels and these are resources tapped by a society "to enable information to flow within it", he adds.

The author emphasizes the role of communication in national development.

Sommerland also underlines that communication policies are not the ends and they provide a framework for action. He makes a reference to what a UNESCO expert group has said that behind these policies is strategic planning.

"(It) determines the alternative ways to achieve long-range goals and sets the frame of reference for shorter-range operational planning. Strategic planning translates into quantified targets and systematic approaches, the general objectives of communication policies," he says.

Sommerland also supports some claims of Lee that communication policies are either embedded or implied in the existing policies of a nation.

"For a country to try and formulate a coherent national communication policy does not, of course, imply that no policies in this area already exist," the former says. "...Because communication is interdisciplinary and because it is the thread which binds a nation together, communication policies even if incomplete and implicit, are to be found in many different parts of a political and social system.

==== Development communication and policy sciences as mutually constitutive fields ====
Development communication and policy sciences exhibits mutuality as catalysts of change in this fluid environment. Both are geared towards effecting change in society. Will these two sciences be robustly beneficial if converged in one developmental framework? Allen (as cited in Flor, 1991) postulates that policy is a science of decision-making based on empirical data gathered from observation.<ref name="AGF" /> One important characteristic of policies is, it is created to facilitate civic order, an agent to development process. How does it relate to development communication? Although a relatively young science, Development Communication has now been recognized and adopted by various agencies: the government and private sector as a means to institute effective changes using bottom-up approach. In the same vein, policy sciences grew out of this need to reorient actively the social sciences to the resolution of policy issues.<ref name="AGF" /> Recognizing that every human being is a value-shaper and sharer in the social process, interaction as whole has been considered systemically by both sciences. A policy science is anchored on its ''intelligence'' function, followed by mobilization and bureaucratic reforms where mobilization is a key component of development communication. Development communication practitioners are well-equipped when it comes to understanding social phenomena which can aid in the ''intelligence function'' of policy scientists. The development agenda of both sciences are anchored on ''contextuality,'' meaning both recognizes the human's social values and institutions in drafting interventions, plans and policies to achieve an ''enlightened society''.

These policies are products of Development Communication initiatives that can influence decision makers or the government in enacting pertinent laws for the benefit of the publics. Development communication's process is akin to policy science as both recognizes the context or the environment where humans socially interact. Both are using social science procedures in solving large-scale problems<ref name="AGF" /> and further acknowledges communication as an integral part of the process. Hence one can surmise that policy decision-making is dependent on communication.

In an era of rapid development, each field should not be viewed as dialectically superior against the other, rather both development communication and policy sciences should mutually work to advance for the social change. The thrusts and goals of Development communication can be sustainable if it is backed by certain policies.

Following Quebral's definition of Development communication "the ''art'' and ''science'' of ''human communication'' applied to ''speedy transformation'' of a country and the mass of its people from ''poverty'' to ''dynamic state of economic growth'' that makes possible ''greater social equality'' and the ''larger fulfillment of human potential''", Flor and Ongkiko explained each aspect of this definition for better understanding on why development communication was defined this way.<ref>{{Cite book | doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.2952.6887| year=2006| last1=Ongkiko| first1=Ila Virginia C.| last2=Flor| first2=Alexander G.| title=Introduction to Development Communication| publisher=University of the Philippines - Open University|edition=Second|isbn=971-560-096-4}}</ref>

'''ART'''

In relaying a message, creativity is needed to attract the attention of its audience. It does not focus only on beautifying the message or the image but the art of communicating with people that would help them understand and adapt to the changes that will happen to them.

'''SCIENCE'''

As Flor and Ongkiko emphasize, development communication is a social science. At the same time, it is both theory and practices. The theory is backed-up with science in order to understand a situation, then the application or execution of plans towards development is the practice. A systematic approach which mostly based on the methods of science is followed in order to address a situation. The most commonly used method is identifying the problem, gathering data about the problem and develop communication processes that will be useful in able to address the situation and helped the community for development.

'''HUMAN COMMUNICATION'''

This is an important aspect for development communication because it is people-centred. The people need to communicate with one another for their own development. The people behind the development is reaching out to the people who need development. That is human communication.

'''SPEEDY TRANSFORMATION'''

This represents the social change that will happen to the community. All the researches made in able to identify the problem must put into action for the transformation of the lives of the people in the community.

'''POVERTY'''

The greatest challenge in development communication is poverty. Even in the Millennium Development Goals of United Nations, poverty is at the top of the list that needs to address with the hope of eradicating it in the future. Because of poverty, many people are experiencing malnutrition, unemployment and illiteracy which adds to the burden of the people.

'''DYNAMIC STATE OF ECONOMIC GROWTH, GREATER SOCIAL EQUALITY, LARGER FULFILLMENT OF HUMAN POTENTIAL'''

Since the goal is for development, this is a continuous process. The aim is to help the people with their economic, social, and environmental goals.

Noticeably, everything that was mentioned in the explanation of the definition of development communication has something to do with goals, progress, theory, research, problem identification, and practices. Thomas L. McPhail, also describes development communication as a process of change using education or media as long as it is for the purpose of positive social change.

This coincides with Harold Lasswell's vision that policy sciences bring together social sciences and practical policymaking to solve public problems, formalizing the link between the two.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/19460171.2008.9518532|title = Harold lasswell's "problem orientation" for the policy sciences|year = 2008|last1 = Turnbull|first1 = Nick|s2cid = 144942537|journal = Critical Policy Studies|volume = 2|pages = 72–91}}</ref>

As mentioned, development communication is backed with science through theories by identifying the problems needed to address. Lasswell identified policy science as problem-solving, with the idea of when addressing the problems, it should focus on human dignity or the fulfilment of human potential as Quebral said on her definition of development communication.

'''NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT'''

According to Jaime B. Ramirez (2011), members of the development media have considered economic and social development as one of the significant and vital signs of national development. Admittedly, he said, development communication cam always bridge gaps between the traditional and modern changing society, as it can raise the full aspirations of the people under the new society in the overall strategy for change.  Development communication accordingly, can enforce social norms. In terms of policy sciences, development communication Ramirez adds, can broaden the policy dialogue by providing the two-way flow of information and opinion required for development as a nation. It, therefore, plays a potent and major role to economic and social development as well as political power. Without sacrificing its freedom, the development media can contribute to the growth of democratic institutions and to political stability, essential to national development.<ref>Philippine Journalism Handbook, 3rd Edition. 2011 reprint.</ref>

===== Social marketing and social mobilization for development =====
In the aim to address and solve the myriad of societal problems of various contexts, the policy sciences are important to be able to have a more structured operational and strategic plan. In view of this, the role of social marketing and social mobilization are deemed necessary to achieve the goal of the policy sciences by purposively crafting and implementing target-specific plans and programs for positive societal change.

Social marketing (soc mar) and social mobilization (soc mob) are utilized to facilitate development (Velasco, Cadiz, and Lumanta, 1999).<ref name="Velasco, M.T.H. 1999">Velasco, M.T.H., Cadiz, M.C.H., and Lumanta, M.F. (1999). Communication and social marketing. UP Open University</ref> Development, as defined by Gonzales (n.d.), is "a quest for an improved quality of life for all." Moreover, Gonzales (n.d.) describes development as multidimensional (possesses political, economic, social, cultural, institutional, and environmental dimensions), multidisciplinary (draws from various disciplines), interdisciplinary (derives comprehensive, strategic, and operational plans for implementation from relationships between and among disciplines), and integrative (unifies diverse orientation to allow inter-penetration among disciplines).<ref>Gonzales, V.A. (n.d). "Development in the Context of a People-Oriented Strategy for Empowerment: An Overview."</ref>
Therefore, the mobilization of people and resources is essential in the quest for development. "True development is people oriented and participatory, bringing about people empowerment. It uses technology in harmony with the environment. It aims to be relevant, responsive, effective, efficient, economical, equitable, and sustainable" (Gonzales in Velasco, Cadiz, and Lumanta, 1999).<ref name="Velasco, M.T.H. 1999"/>

===== Social marketing versus social mobilization =====
Social marketing uses different strategies to market social ideas and values that aim to create a change in behavior. Whereas, social mobilization has a much broader scope and it encompasses social marketing and communication. Social mobilization aims to bring together individuals and groups in spreading awareness about a certain cause using social marketing strategies. Social marketing is implemented when an advocacy/cause/message needs to be crafted in a way that it will effectively reach certain groups of people or target markets.

Kotler and Zaltman (in McKee, 1992) define social marketing as "the design, implementation, and control of program calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas, involving considerations of product, pricing, communications, and market research." On the other hand, McKee (1992) described social mobilization as "the process of bringing together all feasible and practical inter-sectoral and social allies to raise people's awareness of the demand for a particular development program, to assist in the delivery of resources and services, and to strengthen community participation for sustainability and self reliance."<ref>McKee, N. (1992). Social Mobilization and Social Marketing in Developing Communities: Lessons for Communicators. Penang, Malaysia: Southbound</ref>

===== Social marketing hand-in-hand with social mobilization =====
Social marketing and social mobilization combined creates a more powerful movement as both elements strengthen each other. Social mobilization prompts the use of social marketing strategies to attain the main objectives of a program. Likewise, social marketing intensifies social mobilization as it upholds a people-centered approach in putting together activities through the use of different media, in achieving the development goal. As an illustration, the interplay of social marketing and social mobilization is manifested in the corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs of different organizations.<ref name="Velasco, M.T.H. 1999"/>

==== Strategic communication for sustainable development ====
"Communication is a key factor to begin and keep a proper Sustainable Development strategy" (Bucur and Petra, 2011).<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Bucur, M |author2=Petra, C.|title=Why Is Communication So Special For Sustainable Development?|journal=Scientific Bulletin of the Petru Maior" University of Târgu Mureş|date=2011|volume=8|issue=1|url=http://scientificbulletin.upm.ro/papers/2011-1/Bucur-M.-Petra-C-Why-is-communication-so-special-for-sustainable-development.pdf}}</ref> Development Communication can be defined as a "dialogue-based process entailing the strategic application of communication approaches, methods and/or technologies for social change". This definition highlights the three important features of development communication – process, analytical activity based on dialogue, and aims to achieve change.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mefalopulos, P. |author2=Grenna, L.|s2cid=8166110|title=Promoting sustainable development through strategic communication|date=2004|publisher=IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-2-8317-0822-5|page=25}}</ref> Strategic Communication is essential in encouraging public participation and achieving effective policy making. It affects goal setting, decision making, development and implementation, and impact assessment. However, communication as a strategic tool remains deficient in development programs creating the need to establish an Interest Group on Strategic Communication for Sustainable Development. Strategic communication "aims at the innovative and sustainable change of practices, behaviors and lifestyles, guides communication processes and media interventions within and among social groups".
An effective strategy for sustainable development integrates the vision and action plan of the government, civil society and the private sector.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Willner|first1=Susanne|title=Strategic Communication for Sustainable Development: A Conceptual Overview|url=https://www.cbd.int/cepa/toolkit/2008/doc/strategic%20communication%20for%20sustainable%20development.pdf|publisher=Schneller Druck, Reutlingen|access-date=28 March 2018}}</ref> The World Bank views development communication as the "integration of strategic communication in development projects" based on a clear understanding of indigenous realities.<ref name="ManyozoAJC" /> The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency is now recognizing the value of implementing strategic communication to support development initiatives. This is aligned with the long tradition of strategic communication initiatives used in development projects related to human rights, democracy, poverty alleviation and health aimed at generating awareness, promoting behavioral changes, affording mobilization, and creating partnerships to reach common goals.<ref>{{cite web|work=Sida Department for Policy and Methodology, Information Department|title=Dialogue and Strategic Communication in Development Cooperation|url=https://www.sida.se/contentassets/b4b1a8018a804e02848e716ca71cacb7/dialogue-and-strategic-communication-in-development-cooperation_1399.pdf|publisher=Edita Communication AB|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-date=16 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416200526/https://www.sida.se/contentassets/b4b1a8018a804e02848e716ca71cacb7/dialogue-and-strategic-communication-in-development-cooperation_1399.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Gender ====

Development communication efforts, along with other development strategies, have failed to improve the conditions of women on a global scale, and when compared with men, women are disproportionately subject to poverty, illiteracy, domestic violence, discrimination, and barriers to senior professional positions, even in development organizations (Harbour & Twist, 1996). As a group that is marginalized from global, national, and community power structures, Wilkins (1999)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wilkins|first=Karin|date=1999|title=Development discourse on gender and communication in strategies for social change|journal=Journal of Communication|volume=49|pages=46–68|doi=10.1111/j.1460-2466.1999.tb02781.x}}</ref> contends that women tend to constitute a target more often than a participant in the production of development communication. Moore (1995)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Debating development discourse: Institutional and popular perspectives|author1=David B. Moore |author2=Gerald J. Schmitz|publisher=St. Martin's Press.|year=1995|location=New York|pages=1–53}}</ref> estimated that "gender" made its "first discursive appearance" in development institutions during the 1960s (p.&nbsp;43). However, it was not until 1975 that women's contributions to the development process were formally acknowledged by the United Nations (UN). The mid-1970s marked a shift in attention to women in development, along with other critical transitions in the field of development communication (Rogers, 1976;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rogers|first=Everett|s2cid=143973879|date=1976|title=Communication and development: The passing of the dominant paradigm|journal=Communication Research|volume=3|issue=2|pages=213–240|doi=10.1177/009365027600300207}}</ref> Schramm & Lerner, 1976<ref>{{Cite book|title=Communication and change: The last ten years—and the next|last=Wilbur Schramm|first=and Wilbur Schramm|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1976|location=Honolulu}}</ref>). A WID strategy advocated including women as an explicit focus in order to achieve development goals (Dagenais & Piché, 1994).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Women, feminism and development|last=Huguette Dagenais|first=and Denise Piché|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1994|location=Montreal, Canada}}</ref> In 1975, WID was placed on a global agenda when the UN sponsored a conference in Mexico City to launch the Year of Women. This facilitated the designation of the Decade for the Advancement of Women (1976 until 1985). As a discourse, WID served to organize principles for the production of knowledge about women by states, institutions, and communities (Escobar, 1995, p.&nbsp;210).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encountering development: The making and unmaking of the third world|url=https://archive.org/details/encounteringdeve00esco_929|url-access=registration|last=Escobar|first=Arturo|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1995|location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> WID construed women as actively contributing to society through their economic production and human reproduction (Staudt, 1985).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Women, foreign assistance and advocacy administration|last=Staudt|first=Kathleen|publisher=Praeger|year=1985|location=New York}}</ref> WID also pointed to a need to improve women's access to education, employment, and political participation (Valdivia, 1996),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Valdivia|first=Angharad|date=1996|title=Is modern to male as traditional is to female?: Re-visioning gender construction in international communications|journal=Journal of International Communication|volume=3|pages=5–25|doi=10.1080/13216597.1996.9751821}}</ref> conditions considered in earlier models of modernization that tended to privilege male constituents. Throughout the Decade for the Advancement of Women however, several scholars recognized limits to using media to promote social change, such as problematic stereotypes of women in media texts, a lack of women's employment in positions of power in media industries, and poor access to mediated technologies as a source of information, particularly among rural women.
Following the Decade for Women, attention to WID gradually shifted toward a concern with gender and development (GAD). This shift from "women" to "gender" resonates with an understanding of gender as a socially constructed category, rather than essentializing sex as a biological condition (Dagenais & Piché, 1994). GAD attempted to position women as active agents of social change situated within social and structural systems of patriarchy and power (Dagenais & Piché, 1994). Steeves (1993)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Steeves|first=Leslie|date=1993|title=Creating imagined communities: Development communication and the challenge of feminism|journal=Journal of Communication|volume=43|issue=3|pages=218–229|doi=10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01295.x}}</ref> drew attention to critical scholarship about the political economy of communication and participatory approaches to development (Freire, 1983)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pedagogy of the oppressed|last=Freire|first=Paulo|publisher=Continuum|year=1983|location=New York}}</ref> to propose the creation of a global, imagined feminist community that challenges power relations. A "global feminist" approach to development would critique what appears to be defining gender according to reproductive capacity in a way that promotes motherhood as a universal role for women, rather than celebrating diversity in women's intentions, experiences, backgrounds, and capabilities.

Hooda and Singh (2012) note that the most significant and longest social movement continuing is the movement for the emancipation of women. However, the primary goal for women empowerment is to improve the quality of life of women, but also has deep ramifications in social, economic and political scenario of body polity. It is such contentions that stressing the need to recognize power dimensions within women's domestic, professional, and social contexts, GAD proponents would advocate interventions designed to change structures or norms.

Development communication activity embodies models of social change that are implemented across political and cultural boundaries wherein, issues of gender, communication, and development are grounded in global structures and processes of power, which condition access to and acquisition of economic and social resources. Watkins (1999) notes that in as much as critical scholars have described the global domination of media systems by Western and corporate agencies, gender also factors into this equation, as the extensive documentation of the tendency of media industries to trivialize women's roles and concerns has been historically demonstrated (van Zoonen, 1994). Early scholars of development communication did not explicitly address the role of gender in their discussions of media and modernity (Watkins, 1999, p.&nbsp;48). However, an examination of their work illustrates implicit assumptions made about men's and women's roles in the development process.  There is thus a need to understand the dynamics contributing to the institutional construction of gender within development communication strategies designed to alleviate social problems. Watkins (1999) cites Steeves (1993) whose summary of feminist scholarship concluded that, among other areas, research is needed "on women's roles and representations in Third World development communication activities, including funding agency projects" (p.&nbsp;120). Along with integrating regional, national, and/or organizational perspectives, one specific tool for policymakers is ensuring that gender perspective is incorporated into policies. Regardless whether gender plays a central role in a development communication policy, the policy-making process has to be taken in a deliberate way to address concerns of both women and men. When views of different groups of women and men in policy formation and delivery are taken accordingly, misjudging of the different effects on each group, and the systems and organizations that support them can be avoided.<ref name="Sutcliff&Court">{{cite book|last1=Sutcliffe|first1=Sophie|last2=Court|first2=Julius|title=A Toolkit for Progressive Policymakers in Developing Countries|date=2006|publisher=Overseas Development Institute|isbn=0-85003-786-7|url=http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/190.pdf|access-date=2 December 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192247/http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/190.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In a quest to ensure that the overall legal and policy framework is promoting gender equality, more than just adopting laws that explicitly provide for gender equality can be done. Thus it is essential that all laws and policies reflect gender equality considerations, through a process called [[gender mainstreaming]]. [[Gender mainstreaming]] is the mechanism to ensure a gender-sensitive approach to policy making.<ref name=OECD>{{cite book|last1=OECD, CAWTAR|title=Women in Public Life Gender, Law and Policy in the Middle East and North Africa|date=2014|publisher=OECD Publishing, Paris|isbn=978-92-64-22463-6|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/governance/women-in-public-life_9789264224636-en}}</ref>

[[Gender mainstreaming]], according to the [[United Nations]], is a globally accepted strategy for promoting gender equality. Mainstreaming is not an end in itself but a strategy, an approach, a means to achieve the goal of gender equality. Mainstreaming involves ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities—policy development, research, advocacy/ dialogue, legislation, resource allocation, and planning, implementation and monitoring of programmes and projects. A strong, continued commitment to gender mainstreaming is one of the most effective means for the [[United Nations]] to support promotion of gender equality at all levels—in research, legislation, policy development and in activities on the ground, and to ensure that women as well as men can influence, participate in and benefit from development efforts.<ref name=UN>{{cite web|last1=United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women|title=Gender Mainstreaming|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm|website=un.org/}}</ref>

United Nations Children's Fund or [[UNICEF]] also promotes gender sensitivity in its policies. [[UNICEF]] gender review ensures that gender is mainstreamed in all [[UNICEF]]'s projects and programs as well as in its work with partners. [[UNICEF]] also ensures that the monitoring and evaluation tools are gender sensitive and that every staff is aware of the UN Code of conduct. UNICEF also uses the Harmonized Gender and Development Guidelines (HGAD) as a tool to promote gender equality and women's empowerment in the development and implementation of projects.<ref name=UNICEF>{{cite web|last1=UNICEF Philippines|title=Gender Mainstreaming|url=http://www.unicef.org/philippines/aboutus_13424.html|website=unicef.org/|access-date=2 December 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084636/http://www.unicef.org/philippines/aboutus_13424.html}}</ref>

The communication approach embedded within empowerment models combines the use of appropriate media. This means using a variety of channels ranging from indigenous media, local and international media systems. (Einsiedel 1996).

==== Demography ====
Defined as the statistical study of populations, Demography is seen as more of a general science that can analyze populations that show change over a period of time. However, in combination with the more specific aspect of communication that has to do with social sciences, demographics can be a significant factor and consequently influencer of Development Communication policy design. Population changes are brought about by birth, migration and mortality. These demographic processes affect the use of resources, nation-building and society formation, and cultural development calling for development communication policies.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Demography?|url=https://www.demogr.mpg.de/en/education_career/what_is_demography_1908/default.htm|publisher=Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-date=10 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310021503/http://www.demogr.mpg.de/En/education_career/what_is_demography_1908/default.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Researcher for the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research Sebastian Klüsener "investigated how the exchange of ideas and information between people could affect the development of spatial, temporal, and social differences in demographic change. The results highlight that communication plays a much larger role in shaping demographic processes..."<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=http://www.demogr.mpg.de/en/news_press/news/news/the_role_of_communication_in_demographic_change_4105.htm|title=The role of communication in demographic change.|last=Klusener|first=Sebastian|website=Max Planck Institute For Demographic Research}}</ref> In her discussion of the relationship between communicators and their audiences, Natalie T. J. Tindall, an associate professor in the department of communication at Georgia State University, US, shares "Demographic categories can still tell us a lot about our social structure, and continue to be useful for macro-level understandings of people and societies."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.communication-director.com/issues/different-perspective/going-beyond-demographics#.VyNjxEfNOng|title=Going beyond demographics|last=Tindall|first=Natalie T.J.|website=Communication Director|date=2 December 2014}}</ref> It is with this understanding that policies can be designed more tailor-fit to those it is designed for.
Furthermore, the criterion by which a demography is performed are relevant factors that may act as a roadmap that can guide development communication policy making. This includes but is not limited to age, level of education, gender distribution profile, individual and household income, etc. With the anticipatory objective of policy sciences in relation to crisis or problem solving, the better policy makers get a grasp of how a population is demographically—not just socially—the more sensitive and pro-active policy making as a process can be. When perspectives of an accurate cross-sectional sampling of a population, group, or culture are taken into consideration, the ensuing policies are better geared towards the pre-set objectives. Scalone, Dribe, and Klusener have further found that "Communication can significantly increase the impact of population-relevant policies and other processes of social change..."<ref name=":14" /> which reinforces the idea that as a science in itself, development communication policy design, becomes more accurate and purposeful when the correct information and variables are holistically integrated.

==== Selected approaches to communication planning for policy development ====
UNESCO or the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization is one of the multilateral organizations that uses communication planning for policy development.  In one of its publications back in 1980 "Approaches to Communication Planning," where it presents some of the most common approaches that scholars, planners and professionals to use.  Below are common approaches to communication planning.<ref name=":0">UNESCO (1980).  Approaches to Communication Planning.  Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000424/042484eo.pdf  on 28 November 2015.</ref>

==== Process approach ====
The process approach deals directly with the communication planning process which deals to the theories within the planning process that asserts that planning is the application of theory on how and why they are used.  (UNESCO, 1980) The second is it deals with the planning process itself that provide alternative ways of organizing the planning function and process, given different purposes and planning contexts.  (UNESCO, 1980) The thrust of the argument is that there are alternatives to the widely known rational/comprehensive planning approach (UNESCO, 1980).<ref name=":0" />

Communication policy makers are not acting in isolation; they had the full support of scientist and theorists. Communication for Development aims at upholding change in people's attitudes and behavior so as to increase their participation in the development process.  Rogers' diffusion of innovations theory is perhaps the most influential theory in the modernization paradigm. The diffusion model gained wide currency in most developing nations and still looms large with the agenda to support 'development' by "informing the populations about the development projects, illustrating their advantages and recommending that they be supported"(Servaes, 1996). Communication within the modernization approach is synonymous to information and ignores the importance of feedback in the communication process. Melkote and Steeves (2001)<ref name=":7">Melkote, Srinivas R. and Steeves, H Leslie (2001). Communication for Development in the Third World: Theory and practice for empowerment, New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications.</ref> contributed three key qualities of modernization theory and practice: blaming the victim, Social Darwinism, and sustaining class structure of inequality. (1) Blaming the victim is an ideological process, an almost painless circumvention among policy-makers and intellectual all over the world. It is a process of justifying inequality in society by finding defects in the victims of inequality. The policymakers simply blame the despondent lives led by the poor in Third World countries and it is being attributed to the lack of motivation and access to information relating to the various social and economic aspects that they need in order to redeem themselves. (2) Social Darwinists believed that government interventions on behalf of the poor would have disastrous results since they would interfere with the laws of natural selection. The theorist believed that outside interventions to address matters concerning the poor would have dreadful results since these would be interfering with a natural course of events and individual choices and rights. (3) Sustaining class structure of inequality, this is a capitalist interest and quite difficult to overcome. The effect of a focus on individual level cultural deficiencies has been to sustain the status quo within and between unequal societies and thus delay change.

===== Systems approach =====

The systems approach in communication planning deals on how to establish new systems within organizations (UNESCO, 1980). This approach is valuable to planners faced with the task of setting up organizational systems to carry out communication functions (UNESCO, 1980). This approach can also be best applied to problems in the environment, providing planners with an analytical perspective on problem analysis and a range of techniques to use in implementing this perspective (UNESCO, 1980).<ref name=":0" />

===== Network approach =====

Network approach (Padovani & Pavan, 2014) is a heuristic framework for theorizing and empirically investigating global communication governance (GCG) environments or networks in supranational settings characterized by plurality and multiplicity of agents, actors and stakeholders, plurality and diversity of cultures, complexity of interactions, plurality of political systems, and multiplicity of policy processes. GCG is a term coined by Padovani & Pavan (2014) to "indicate the multiplicity of networks of interdependent but operationally autonomous actors that are involved with different degrees of autonomy and power, in processes of formal or informal character, through which they pursue different goals, produce relevant knowledge and cultural practices, and engage in political negotiation while trying to influence the outcome of decision-making in the domain of media and communication in transnational context" (p.&nbsp;544). Network approach specifically focuses on the transnational dynamics that govern communication systems.<ref>(Source: Padovani, C. & Pavan, E. (2014). Actors and Interactions in Global Communication Governance: The Heuristic Potential of Network Approach. In Mansell R. & Raboy, M. (eds). The Handbook of Global Media and Communication Policy. John Wiley & Sons.)</ref>

===== Policy life cycle =====

Government officials and policy makers in both developed and developing countries are often confronted with problems for which they have no design solutions.<ref name=":6">Servaes, J., Jacobson, T. L., & White, S. A. (1996). Participatory communication for social change. New Delhi: Sage Publications.</ref> Every problem, country and culture requires a specific approach and seems to go through policy life cycle. Winsemius proposed four phases of policy cycle;
Phase 1: Recognizing the problem; groups in the society such as government official, lobbyists and countries' leaders recognize the problem, e.g. terrorism, poverty, global warming, and other. The problem is made known to all stakeholders, during this stage the members realized that problem should be tackled through policy.
Phase 2: Gaining Control over the Problem; at this point, the government start to advance in their mechanisms through the formulation of policies. Policy oriented research is often appointed to scientific institutions, opinion surveys are piloted, and options for improving and solving the problem are accounted.
Phase 3: Solving the Problem; at this stage, policies, programs and projects are implemented. In most cases, the government will manage all the details of a program by itself but the best scenario is when NGOs and other involved groups participate in the initiatives.
Phase 4: Monitoring the Problem: At this point the focus is to ensure that the problem is under control and must remain so. This is also the time to think about future policies and to develop public and private partnerships in implementing policies.

==== Interdisciplinary research for policy and practice ====
Policy analysis has traditionally followed a linear model – problem identification, policy formulation, legislation, implementation, evaluation, and iteration. However, in solving complex socio-economic problems, a more interdisciplinary approach to societal problems may be more effective particularly for research topics of interdisciplinary nature (e.g., women's studies, environment) or those relevant to policy or strategic issues – drawing from different disciplines to enhance understanding of particular issues or for concept development. The main interest of interdisciplinary research for policy and practice is description, prediction, and ultimately social action.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lyall|first1=Catherine|title=A Short Guide to Designing Interdisciplinary Research for Policy and Practice|url=http://www.genomicsnetwork.ac.uk/media/Short%20Guide%20to%20Designing%20Interdisciplinary%20Research%20for%20Policy%20and%20Practice.pdf|publisher=The Institute for the Study of Science Technology and Innovation (ISSTI)|access-date=7 May 2018|archive-date=7 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507223507/http://www.genomicsnetwork.ac.uk/media/Short%20Guide%20to%20Designing%20Interdisciplinary%20Research%20for%20Policy%20and%20Practice.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In interdisciplinary research, different disciplines interact and work together at each and every stage of the research process – from conceptualisation, research design and methodology, data analysis and interpretation into policy development.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Stuart C. Carr|author2=Malcolm MacLachlan|title=Interdisciplinary Research For Development: A Policy Paper|url=https://www.massey.ac.nz/massey/fms/Colleges/College%20of%20Humanities%20and%20Social%20Sciences/Psychology/Poverty/pubs/policybrief/IRD_Policy_Paper_GDN.pdf?CD96AA10C904990C1E389CFE185C464A|access-date=7 May 2018}}</ref>

==== Methods in communication policy analysis ====
Ongkiko and Flor (2006)<ref name="OandF" /> argue that a development communication specialist (DCS), at one time or another, also assumes the role of a communication policy analyst in Communication Policy Analysis 'because of his proactive posture and his preoccupation with purpose' (Flor, 1991). Remember that policy sciences anticipates, and looks forward, thus, substantiates the proactive nature of a DCS. In order to fully act out this role, there is a need for a rudimentary knowledge of methods in policy analysis, particularly those related to development communication.<ref name=":2" /> Among these methods are discussed below:

===== Communication technology assessment (CTA) =====
Communication plays a vital role in project coordination, management, knowledge collection and transfer among different project shareholders (Malone & Crowston, 1994; Espinosa & Carmel, 2003, as cited by Gill, Bunker, & Seltsikas, 2012<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1123&context=pacis2012
| title = Evaluating A Communication Technology Assessment Tool (CTAT): A Case of a Cloud Based Communication Tool
|author1=Gill, A. |author2=Bunker, D. |author3=Seltsikas, P.
| date = 2012
| website = aisel.aisnet.org
| access-date = 29 February 2016
}}</ref>). CTA is a qualitative method that seeks to determine the higher and lower order impacts of specific forms of communication technology on the individual and society (Flor, 1991) prior to the adoption of new technology (Ongkiko & Flor, 2006<ref name="OandF" />). The decision to adopt or not depends on the findings of the assessment. CTA is forward-looking and adopts certain value premises on what is socially beneficial or detrimental to society.<ref name=":2" /> Being anticipatory in nature, CTA forecasts, at least on a probabilistic basis, the full spectrum of possible consequences of technological advance, leaving to the political process the actual choice among the alternative policies in the light of the best available knowledge of their likely consequences (Brooks, 1976, as cited by Ely, Zwanenberg, & Stirling, 2010).<ref name=":11">Ely, Adrian, Zwanenberg, Patrick Van, & Stirling, Andrew (2010). ''Technology Assessment: New Model of Technology Assessment for Development.'' Accessed online from http://steps-centre.org/wp-content/uploads/Technology_Assessment.pdf [24 April 2016]</ref> In this case, it should provide an unbiased analysis and information concerning the physical, biological, economic, social, and political effects of [communication] technologies.<ref name=":11" />

===== Cost-Benefit Analysis =====
Introduced by Jules Dupuit in the 1840s, French engineer and economist, the cost benefit analysis is a methodology used in policy analysis as a way of weighing up projects costs and benefits, to determine whether to go ahead with a project.

Beyea (1999),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/topic/cost-benefit-analysis-decision-making-public|title=Cost Benefit Analysis: Decision Making in the Public Sector Questions and Answers - eNotes.com|website=eNotes}}</ref> identifies the types of cost analysis used in policy making to aid decision process. These are: Cost-Benefit analysis, Cost-effectiveness, cost-utilization and cost utility.

===== Social cost-benefit analysis =====
Pathak (n.d.)<ref>{{Cite journal
| url = https://www.academia.edu/3848594
| title = Social Cost-Benefit Analysis: A Study of Power Subjects
| last = Pathak
| first = R
| date = n.d.
| website = Social Cost-Benefit Analysis: A Study of Power Subjects
| access-date = 29 February 2016
}}</ref> explains that Social Cost Benefit Analysis (SCBA) is also referred to as Economic Analysis (EA). SCBA or EA is a feasibility study of a project from the viewpoint of a society to evaluate whether a proposed project will add benefit or cost to the society (Ibid.). Ongkiko and Flor (2006<ref name="OandF" />) further elaborate that SCBA is a quantitative method which attaches monetary values on social conditions brought by certain communication policies. Flor (1991) explains the monetary value of the social costs is subtracted from the social benefits of a particular program or policy. A positive difference is required for a program or policy to be adjudged as socially beneficial.<ref name=":2" /> The purpose of SCBA is to assist public decision-making, not in terms of producing the ideal project but simply by proposing the optimum solution for the community out of the spectrum of possibilities (Dupuis, 1985).<ref name=":12">Dupuis, Xavier (1985). ''Applications and Limitations of Cost-Benefit Analysis as Applied to Cultural Development.'' A study commissioned by UNESCO. Retrieved online from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000819/081977eo.pdf [24 April 2016].</ref> Hence, the objective is to determine optimum quantities as a contribution to decision-making or to evaluate the effectiveness of decisions already taken.<ref name=":12" />

===== Problematique analysis =====
The problematique analysis procedure is a naturalistic approach<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/01292989309359574|title = Towards a methodology for problematique analysis: A philippine experience|year = 1993|last1 = Librero|first1 = Felix|journal = Asian Journal of Communication|volume = 3|pages = 84–102}}</ref> that seeks to discover the influential factors<ref name=":2" /> and describe the structure of problems that exist in communication systems (Librero, 1993; Flor, 1991). The basic purpose of this approach, according to Librero (1993), is to identify the problem rather than the solution. In the process, therefore, the evaluator employing problematique analysis identifies the factors that influence the system, shows the hierarchical relationships of these factors and traces the root causes of the problems of the system.<ref name=":13" /> Flor (1991) classified these influential factors as either ''subordinate'' or ''superordinate'', with the former being merely the symptoms of the latter. The identification of the superordinate influential factors or the root causes, then, prevents the recurrence of the problem situation.<ref name=":2" />

"Problematique" situation occurs when certain recurring problems come about due to the fact that symptoms are treated but not the root cause of such problems. When 'superordinate influential factors', root causes of problems, are identified and given focus, real solutions come about. This is done through a 'problematic map' (Librero, 1998), perceived as basic tool for problem analysis that basically identifies the root causes which can be the bases for forming solutions.<ref>Ongkiko, V. & Flor, A. (2006). Introduction to Development Communication. UP Open University.</ref>

===== Scenario construction =====
As a policy analysis tool, scenario construction (SC) describes a possible set of future conditions (Moniz, 2006<ref name=":9">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200002555 |doi=10.1007/0-387-28829-5_9|chapter=Scenario-Building Methods as a Tool for Policy Analysis|title=Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis|year=2006|last1=Moniz|first1=António Brandão|pages=185–209|isbn=0-387-28828-7}}</ref>) or hypothetical events that may occur in the future of a particular system (Allen, 1978, as cited by Flor, 1991). It has also been defined as a description of the conditions and events under which some system being studied is assumed to be operating (Kraemer, 1973, as cited by Flor, 1991). Scenarios provide an educated description of one of many possible futures of a system, usually presented at the most optimistic or "best-case" state and the most pessimistic or "worst-case" state.<ref name=":2" /> According to Moniz (2006), the most useful scenarios are those that display the conditions of important variables over time. In this approach, the quantitative underpinning enriches the narrative evolution of conditions or evolution of variables; narratives describe the important events and developments that shape the variables. In terms of innovative methods for policy analysis, the foresight and scenario construction methods can be an interesting reference for social sciences (Moniz, 2006<ref name=":9" />). Citing Allen (1978), Flor (1991) enumerates six steps in scenario construction, namely: (1) defining the system; (2) establishing a time period for the system to operate; (3) defining the external constraints on the environment of the system; (4) defining the elements or events within the system that are likely to increase or decrease the chances of the system's meeting its goals and objectives; (5) stating in probabilistic terms the likelihood of the occurrence of the elements or events; and (6) conducting a sensitive analysis of the results.

===== Policy Delphi =====
The Policy Delphi, according to Flor (1991), is a variation of the Delphi technique. It is a tool for the analysis of policy issues seeking the involvement and participation of anonymous respondents (usually representatives of the different stakeholders of the policy). Herein, the desirability and feasibility of certain policies are assessed from the points of view of the different stakeholders.<ref name=":2" /> Meanwhile, according to Turoff (1975), the policy Delphi aims to create the best possible contrasting insights to resolve a major policy problem. Herein, the decision maker is interested on having a group that will give him options and supporting evidences where he can choose from for him to make a solution, rather than having a group that will produce the decision for him. ''"The Policy Delphi is, then, a tool for the analysis of policy issues and not a mechanism for making a decision"'' (Turoff, 1975).<ref name=":10">Turoff, Murray (1975). The Policy Delphi. In ''Harold A. Linstone and Murray Turoff (Eds.), The Delphi Method: Techniques and Applications.'' pp. 80–96. Online copy was accessed from http://is.njit.edu/pubs/delphibook/delphibook.pdf [24 April 2016]</ref> Turoff (1975) notes the challenging nature of policy Delphi as a means for policy analysis, "both for the design team and for the respondents" (Turoff, 1975). As a process, the policy Delphi undergoes the following six phases: (1) Formulating the issue; (2) Citing options; (3) Deciding preliminary stance about the issue; (4) Searching and getting reasons for disputes; (5) Assessing the underlying reasons; (6) Reassessing the options.<ref name=":10" />

As a methodology, Delphi is used for structuring a group communication process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to deal with a complex problem.<ref name=":10" /> As mentioned, one of the advantages of this technique is the involvement of stakeholders in the analysis which is imperatively instrumental in building a consensus among people who will be/are affected by the policy/project. In the Philippines, this has also been well applied in a study conducted by Dr. Alexander Flor and Dr. Felix Librero in the Southeast Asian Needs Assessment for a Global Open Agriculture and Food University.<ref name=":15" /> Recently, Haynes, Palermo and Reidlinger(2016) adopted a Delphi modified technique(James Lind Alliance Approach) in their study in exploring obesity prevention<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haynes|first1=Emily|last2=Palermo|first2=Claire|last3=Reidlinger|first3=Dianne P.|date=2016-09-01|title=Modified Policy-Delphi study for exploring obesity prevention priorities|journal=BMJ Open|language=en|volume=6|issue=9|pages=e011788|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011788|issn=2044-6055|pmid=27601495|pmc=5020738}}</ref> in Australia.

Flor (1991)<ref name=":2"/> emphasizes the incorporation of divergent stakeholders in communication policy making. That the State is not a lone actor in the creation of public policies as noted by the various stakeholders identified by Flor (1991), attesting to the fact that State actions do not occur in an empty space. Consumer involvement to policy making can therefore of paramount importance in helping create relevant policies vis-à-vis Gatung's (1979)<ref>Galtung, Johian. (1971). 'A structural theory of imperialism'. ''Journal of Peace Research'', 8 (2) pp.81–117.</ref> postulation of policies promoting "''horizontalization'' where exchanges occur between the centers and peripheries "on more equal terms"." In this regard, employing appropriate methods in policy research such would be necessary in 'light of the diversity of stakeholders involved, there is a possibility to broaden the scope of 'expertise' to share opinion across diverse perspectives including local communities' (Haynes, et al., 2016). Employing the Modified Policy-Delphi technique to crafting an all-inclusive communication policy include the following jusutification:
* The Policy-Delphi technique ability to explore consensus and dissent, rather than aiming to achieve consensus,
* As a flexible technique, it can be applied to various situations to map overlapping priorities from different perspectives and identify mutual priorities across stakeholder groups and therefore is a valuable exercise for investigating complex public issues
* The technique facilitates an in-depth investigation which may detect limitations, considerations and consequences of policy options which may enhance the value and success of policy implementation.
* The diversity of stakeholders involved makes reaching consensus on priorities less feasible but where mapping perspectives may identify mutual concepts behind the most agreeable options to inform future research and practice.
* The technique provides an opportunity for participants to contribute equally, and offers additional options and comments throughout; in this respect, it gives all participants, including consumers, a voice in the complex debate [equity in 'Voices']
The methodology outlined in Haynes et al. (2016)<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011788|title = Modified Policy-Delphi study for exploring obesity prevention priorities|year = 2016|last1 = Haynes|first1 = Emily|last2 = Palermo|first2 = Claire|last3 = Reidlinger|first3 = Dianne P.|journal = BMJ Open|volume = 6|issue = 9|pages = e011788|pmid = 27601495|pmc = 5020738}}</ref> paper align with Servaes (1986)<ref name="Servaes, Jan 1986 pp. 73">Servaes, Jan (1986). Participatory Communication (Research) from a Freirean Perspective. ''Africa Media Review'' 10 (1), pp. 73–91.</ref> reference to the application of Participatory Communication (Research) from a Freirean Perspective by positing that for dialectical and emancipatory process of action and reflection that constitutes the "process of ''conscientization,'' where an agenda instead of defined by an academic elite and programs enacted by a bureaucratic elite for the benefit of an economic or political elite, participatory research involves people gaining an understanding of their situation, confidence and an ability to change that situation" (Servaes, 1986).<ref name="Servaes, Jan 1986 pp. 73"/> Therefore, the notion of Participatory Communication stresses the importance of cultural identity of local communities, and of democratisation and participation at all levels – international, national, local and individual. It points to a strategy, not merely inclusive of, but largely emanating from, the traditional 'receivers'. However one needs not to romanticize the use of such 'equity' methods. Sarveas(1986)<ref name="Servaes, Jan 1986 pp. 73"/> had outlined the following caution:
* Participatory research can all too easily be utilized as yet another tool of manipulation by vested interests.
* While the approach strives towards empowerment, challenges existing structures, and is consequently ideological, rigidly prescribed ideologies must be avoided
* In addition, knowledge and perspective gained may well empower exploitative economic and authoritarian interests instead of local groups.
* Far from helping the process of liberation, if the researcher is not careful, he or she may only enable the traditional policy-makers and vested interests to present their goods in a more attractive package.
* Even the best intentioned researcher/activist can inadvertently enhance dependency rather than empowerment. If she/he enters communities with ready-made tools for analyzing reality, and solving problems, the result will likely be that as far as those tools are successful, dependency will simply be moved from one tyrant to another".

===== Simulations and modelling =====
Simulations and modelling recently become a useful tool policy analysis involving computers and software in creating a virtual representation of the scenario. Because it offers a systems view of the situation, the analyst or researcher can monitor how the players or variables interacts in the simulated environment. The purposes of simulations may vary to include education, research, design improvement and/or the exploration of the probable effect of different policy decisions.

Guyonne Kalbe(2004) identifies and distinguishes two types of simulation models: macro and micro levels. According to Kalbe, the macro-level is applied mostly for huge sectors of the industries. This macro simulation is usually applied by developed countries in order to assess and understand policy changes. On the other hand, the micro-level is used for a specific company using a sample of population when a need for more precised and focused information is its goal. In contrast to large-scale industries that use the macro-level approach, the micro-level is individualized.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalbe|first=Guyonne|title=Introduction: The Use of Simulation Models in Policy Analysis|url=http://businesslaw.curtin.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2016/05/AJLE-v7n1-kalb-intro.pdf|journal=Australian Journal of Labour and Economics|date=30 January 2020 |volume=7|pages=1–12}}</ref>

Since problems in policy decisions are not linear by nature, computer simulations provides a concrete view of the situation and how the variables changes pace. These changes in behaviors are integral in developing policies. Steven Bankes(1992) explicates the use of computer simulation in policy decisions wherein models used in policy analysis provide arguments to illuminate options for policy decisions based on the result of computer simulated analysis.<ref>Bankes, S. (1992). https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/notes/2009/N3093.pdf</ref>

The methodology has been successfully used in development projects. Thorngate & Tavakoli(2009) mention fields where computer simulations has aided decision makers in assessing the context and solutions to specific problems. Among these include: the climate changes, effects of fiscal changes in economic policies, traffic regulations, health allocation resources, air regulations and crisis management to name a few.<ref>Thorngate, W., and Tavakoli, M. (2009). Simulation, Rhetoric, and Policy Making. Simulation & Gaming, Sage Publications. Volume 40 number 4. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878108330539</ref>

It is noted that simulations and modelling could be based on artificial data generating process (DGP) or real live data from the environment for analysis. The real data derived from the environment is often called "big data" due to the significantly larger size. This is especially critical in the development communication discussion when there is prevalent use of digital communication technology in low and middle income countries (Taylor & Schroeder, 2015). The technologies in these countries include mobile phones and notebooks. These technologies emit data as a byproduct and have great potential to fill some of the problematic gaps encountered by country policy makers and international development organizations. There is research indicating that the use of big data represents an important complement to country level statistics (Taylor & Schroeder, 2015).,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor, L & Schroeder R |first1=L&R |title=Is bigger better? the emergence of big data as a tool for international development policy |journal=GeoJournal |date=2015 |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=503–518 |doi=10.1007/s10708-014-9603-5|bibcode=2015GeoJo..80..503T |s2cid=154360975 }}</ref> better water quality modelling (Korfmacher, 1998)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Korfmacher |first1=K. S |title=Water quality modeling for environmental management: Lessons from the policy sciences |journal=Policy Sciences |date=1998 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.1023/A:1004334600179|s2cid=189823529 }}</ref> and improved agricultural development (WESTERVELT, 2001).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=WESTERVELT |first1=J.D |title=Empowering stakeholders and policy makers with science-based simulation modeling tools |journal=The American Behavioral Scientist |date=2001 |volume=44 |issue=8 |pages=1418–1437|doi=10.1177/00027640121956764 |s2cid=145768863 }}</ref>

The use of big data can ensure a more accurate measurement of macro-economic data such as price track. The Billion Prices Project (BPP) initiated by MIT's Sloan School of Management challenges the Argentina government on the misleading inflation index report. It reported by very high inflation rate by the government's statistical institute which led to the fire of all government officials in the department a few years later. The actual inflation rate after the lay-off eventually stabilizes. The group in MIT decided to investigate what is going on by programming a web scraper to find prices for everyday goods posted on the web by the country's supermarkets. It scrapes many data on the web and is a financially affordable experiment. The outcome of the result led to an increased suspicion that Argentina's statistical agency was under pressure to level off inflation rate by higher order authority. The BPP proves to be influential because it produced an inflation index that was more intuitively reflective of perceptions and in real society than the government. It also provides an alternative set of perspective on economic trends which policymakers can use to make prudent finance policy decisions. There is an increasing need for major governments in the world to rethink how development statistics should be collated in order to craft better and finer public policy.

The simulation approach in policy science is beneficial to policy coherence on the sustainable development goals commonly called SDGs. The SGDs developed by United Nations has integrative nature which is suitable for integrative modelling techniques (Collste et al., 2017).<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Collste, D. |author2=Pedercini, M. |author3=Cornell, S. E. |title=Policy coherence to achieve the SDGs: Using integrated simulation models to assess effective policies |journal=Sustainability Science |date=2017 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=921–931 |doi=10.1007/s11625-017-0457-x|pmid=30147764 |pmc=6086251 |bibcode=2017SuSc...12..921C }}</ref> Collste and the researchers have shown in a Tanzania experiment that modelling approach towards SGDs can bring interlinks to the forefront and facilitate a shift to a discussion on development grounded in systems thinking. It brings the multitudes of possible feedback loops that shape a country's development especially those in developing country. The modelling approach in SDGs maps interlinkages and provide analysis about the resulting behaviour of different policy decisions. It also provide new casual pathways on investments in public projects.

==== Applications of policy sciences to context-specific developmental policy issues ====

===== Environmental assessment =====
The [[policy science]]s are highly relevant in environmental impact assessments (EIA) and large-scale environmental change modeling. One example is the use of scenario-making in the study by Garb, Pulver, and VanDeveer (2008). Using storyline driven modeling, they sought to understand the impacts of human activities on natural systems. The said study departs from the increasingly technical approach to [[scenario analysis]]. Instead, they drew concept and methodologies from science and technology studies, sociology, and political science. Policy-making is multi-method, and in this case, multi-disciplinary. In this study's framework, scenario is said to be able to "co-produce knowledge and social order by facilitating collaboration between scientific and technical experts of various types and policy-makers and other non-scientists, as together they 'make sense' of aspects of the natural world and aspects of social interaction (their own and that of societies at large)." The intertwined relationship between development communication and policy sciences is affirmed because the study recommends including more representatives of social science professionals in global environmental scenario teams, and creating fora with their active involvement, as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/3/4/045015|title=Scenarios in society, society in scenarios: toward a social scientific analysis of storyline-driven environmental modeling |author= Yaakov Garb |display-authors=etal|year=2008|journal=Environ. Res. Lett.|volume=3|issue = 4|page=045015 |bibcode=2008ERL.....3.5015G |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In recent years, international-funding agencies such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank has recognised the potential of EIA as an opportunity for dialogue between and among project stakeholders (Flor, 2004).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/181519|title=Environmental Communication|first=Alexander Gonzalez|last=Flor|via=www.academia.edu}}</ref>

Flor posits that though the EIA is generally regarded as a regularly and management tool, it should also be regarded as a communication process that seeks to achieve mutual understanding—the overall purpose of development communication and for that matter, environmental communication programs. This mutual understanding would translate to societal environmental consciousness.
Development communication as a discipline grew as a response to some of the most pressing problems of underdevelopment including environment and resources degradation. Environmental communication programs are logically subsumed under development communication.

Citing five case studies of the use of communication and social mobilisation in environmental protection and natural resources management programs, Flor laid out the following lessons learned from the five programs:

# Effective environment communication is not merely instructive nor consultative.
# Effective environmental communication is not merely informative either.
# Participation and collective action is internally driven, not externally imposed.
# Environmental communication should make use of indigenous media.
# Environment communication should be done on an interpersonal level as well as on a community level, and further on a national level.
# Participation takes time; effective communication proceeds at its own pace.
# Effective environment communication assumes a momentum of its own.

'''Transformational Communication Approach in Chaotic Environment'''

Development communication policies on environment take on approaches expected to create good environment practices. A particular approach that aims for the conversion of the heart and mind is Transformational Communication. This communication model is the answer to failed environment programs, especially the top-down strategy and those that target only behavior change (Flor and Smith, 1997).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Flor |first1=Alexander |last2=Smith |first2=Rebecca |title=Transformational communication: A normative approach to environmental IEC |url=https://www.academia.edu/178960}}</ref>

Mooney (2017)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mooney |first1=Mick |title=The difference between transactional and transformational communication |url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/difference-between-transactional-transformational-mick-mooney/}}</ref> views Transformational Communication superior to other communication types which simply passes information (transactional) and purpose (transformative) on a rational level. He defines Transformational as transfer of meanings to achieve emotional connection.  The International Environmental Communication Association explains that meanings and values influence how people relate to nature and environment. It also asserts that sustainable ecology entails changes in human culture. Thus, ethical and effective communication helps usher in necessary cultural adjustments to solve [[ecological crisis]] (Meisner, 2015).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Meisner |first1=Mark |title=Environment Communication: What it is and why it matters |date=30 November 2015 |url=https://theieca.org/resources/environmental-communication-what-it-and-why-it-matters |access-date=2 May 2019 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502151449/https://theieca.org/resources/environmental-communication-what-it-and-why-it-matters }}</ref>

For Flor & Smith (1997), this value-laden or normative approach of Transformational Communication paradigm makes it more effective than other modes in addressing the highly unstable or chaotic biogeopysical components of the environment system. The Butterfly Effect for example shows that just a little stimuli (flapping of a butterfly wings) can suddenly make a fine weather turbulent. 
In the area of communication, this chaotic field is populated with numerous friendly and unfriendly behaviors toward the environment.  Interventions for each behavior may not be feasible, and solutions for only a few might also be fragmented.  Flor & Smith(1997) advise that focusing on norms that direct environment-friendly behaviors is the key intervention in complex ecology.

Flor & Smith (1997) offers three substantive areas of the normative approach: Environmental Literacy, Environmental Ethics, and Environmental Advocacy geared for massive social transformation. According to Flor & Smith (1997), these three areas in Transformational Communication operate as institutional or network level, process-driven social learning which initiates values formation, and strategic by working with specific leaders and policy makers key to the mobilization of the critical mass in environment revolution.

====Establishing Trust in Internal Communication====

According to Kennan and Hazleton (2006) in their theory of internal public relations, they said that effective communication is based on social capital. Social capital is the ability of the organization to achieve desirable organizational goals, which could be through employee satisfaction, commitment, productivity and customer satisfaction. Shockley-Zalabak et al. (2000) argued that trust is a social capital. Sockley-Zalabak's found that trust is linked to lower incidents of litigation and legislation. It also directly affects an organization's ability to deal with change and crisis. They also found that trust influences job satisfaction, productivity and team building.

Corporate communication policies are essential in sustaining an organization. It can make or break your business and thus have to be explicitly communicated especially when dealing with complex issues and rapid changes in a turbulent market.

Source: Employee/Organizational Communications by Bruce Berger (2008). [https://instituteforpr.org/employee-organizational-communications/ Employee / Organizational Communications]

====Policy science as catalyst instrument for environmental communication towards development====

[[Policy science]] is the bedrock in developing environmental and social movement to address immense issue and predicament regarding environmental depletion and societal development. However, there are three components to be considered when addressing about the issue and talking about development (economy, environment, and society). The most prevalent phenomenon bound to become increasingly imperative through the ongoing dual process of economic-cum-ecological globalization wherein the process of constructing policies for [[sustainable development]] is essential. The concept of "policy science" plays a central role in the development; therefore, the incorporation and synchronization of communication and policy science in tackling the challenges encountered is valuable. The communicators are critical contributors to societal development and environmental sustainability wherein the basis could be aided as the framework for [[policy analysis]] and policy construction. At these science-policy interfaces, policymakers, communicators and other key stakeholders are supposed to interact on a constant basis.<ref name="Li">{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=N.|title=The Science-Policy Interface as a Communication Process: Exploring How Policy Decision-Makers Perceive Science-Driven Policy and Make Evidence-Based Decisions on the Nuclear Fuel Cycle|journal=ProQuest LLC|date=2015}}</ref>

Development with emphasis on [[environmental communication]] instrument guided by the policy science is a trending topic. Indeed, the consideration of environmental communication in developing policy to handle the enduring distresses act as catalyst for policy makers to unravel protuberant concern. Numerous countries that have developed or are developing when surfacing about the environment is essentially crucial as the development that is being misguided by the policy science will lead to a plethora of [[environmental crisis]]. Therefore, policy creation in fostering environmental communication is vital as it has significantly contributed to the totality growth of economy and serve as a platform to raise key questions that positively helpful in [[decision making]]. Environmental communication, defined as "... the medium that we use in constructing environmental problems and negotiating communities different responses to them.<ref name="Cox">{{cite book|last1=Cox|first1=R.|title=Risk communication: Nonexpert publics and acceptable risk. In Environmental communication and the public sphere|date=2006|publisher=Sage|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|pages=205–240}}</ref> The development of environmental policy instruments at the national level has a positive influence on [[environmental management]] at other levels and all sectors.<ref name="Lagzdina">{{cite journal|last1=Lagzdina|first1=E.|title=Environmental communication instruments for environmental policy integration|journal=Scientific Journal of Riga Technical University: Environmental and Climate Technologies|date=2010|volume=5|issue=1|page=56|bibcode=2010SJRUE...5...56L|doi=10.2478/v10145-010-0035-2|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, the requirement in developing "environmental communication instrument" is essential to lay the foundation for the framework to understand the environmental communication policy science in stimulating for development into top-down stream from national level. Communication in the environmental sector that is primarily formally regulated by access to information and participation legal acts, has great potential, if an immense variety of well-developed and continuously emerging new environmental communication forms represented by different sectors and target groups, are utilized for the common goal of sustainable development.<ref name="Lagzdina" /> However, these will become successful when communicators, policy makers, and key stakeholders can effectively convey their messages to each other and build mutual trust based on a set of co-constructed knowledge.<ref name="Bogenschneider">{{cite book|last1=Bogenschneider|first1=K.|last2=Corbett|first2=T.|title=Evidence-based policymaking: Insights from policy-minded researchers and research-minded policymakers|publisher=Routledge|date=2011|isbn=978-0-415-80584-1 }}</ref> Setting policy to promote environmental communication for development is essential. However, understanding environmental communication instruments especially the broad spectrum of technical content and social consideration to lever the consequences should not be deserted.

===== Governance =====
In a study by Hilbert, Miles, and Othmer (2009), a five-round Delphi exercise was conducted to show how "international foresight exercises, through online and offline tools, can make policy-making in developing countries more participatory, fostering transparency and accountability of public decision-making". Policy science was used to identify future priorities with regard to the 2005–2007 Latin American and Caribbean Action Plan for the Information Society ([[ELAC Action Plans|eLAC2007]]). The paper presented specific policy guidance, and explained how [[Delphi method|Policy]] [null Delphi] methods can be applied to make public decision-making more transparent and accountable, particularly in developing countries. Practical implications drawn include 1) "the governments' acknowledgement of the value of collective intelligence from civil society, academic and private sector participants of the Delphi and the ensuing appreciation of participative policy-making" and 2) "the role that can be played by the United Nations (and potentially by other inter-governmental agencies) in international participatory policy-making in the digital age, especially if they modernize the way they assist member countries in developing public policy agendas".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hilbert|first1=Martin|last2=Miles|first2=Ian|last3=Othmer|first3=Julia|date=2009-09-01|title=Foresight tools for participative policy-making in inter-governmental processes in developing countries: Lessons learned from the eLAC Policy Priorities Delphi|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|volume=76|issue=7|pages=880–896|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2009.01.001|s2cid=154784808 }}</ref>

Issues and Challenges of Development Communication and Policy Science

Although the field of development communication has been present as early as the 1950s, Waisbord (2005)<ref>Waisbord, S. (2005). Media and Glocal Change: Rethinking Communication for Development. http://biblioteca.clacso.edu.ar/clacso/coediciones/20100824064549/08Chapter4.pdf</ref> mentioned that it faces two sets of challenges. The first set of challenges has something to do with the critical aspects of development projects: scale and sustainability. The first challenge asks how a small-scale project and its effects in a locally based community be replicated to the national level. On the other hand, sustainability refers to community projects that have a long-lasting impact. It asks the questions about how long will the impact of the project take effect?. The second set of challenges focuses on the specific issues of communication. This concentrates on bridging the divide between 'small' and 'big' media and looking at their contribution towards development communication.

Servaes and Lie (2014)<ref>Servaes, J. & Lie, R. (2014). New challenges for communication for sustainable development and social change: a review essay. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/17447143.2014.982655</ref> also outlined the main challenges for the field of communication for development:
#The differences between good governance and good government and the issues of transparency and accountability. 
#The complexity of the participatory concept. 
#Participation taking place at different levels.
#The reinforcement of independent and pluralistic media.
#Not making full use of potential radio.
#Enabling policy and resources.
#Implementing a legal and supportive framework favoring the right to free expression and the emergence of free and pluralistic information systems.
#Building alliances
#New global partnerships are necessary with the media, development agencies, universities, and governments.

===== Distance education =====
In the book "Beyond Access and Equity: Distance Learning Models in Asia", Flor (2002) details the case of SMP Terbuka, a junior secondary education in Indonesia delivered in distance learning mode. This is in consonance with the country's pursuit of the Universalization of Basic Education. In assessing the socio-cultural environment of SMP Terbuka and in determining the policy environment for [[distance learning]], environmental scanning was done. The study also used the problematique method to analyze structural-organizational problems in a distance learning system, along with their causes. Overall, a systems analysis approach was employed where the environment, the stakeholders, the organization cum network, and problem structure were analyzed. Flor proceeds with a proposed communication and advocacy plan for SMP Terbuka aimed at eliciting public support to this alternative education mode. In designing the [[social marketing]] and advocacy blueprint, situation analysis was used. This employed four methods, namely, "environmental scanning, communication resources assessment; review of existing communication strategies; and strategic impact analysis directed at sector stakeholders".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flor |first=Alexander G. |title=Beyond Access and Equity: Distance Learning Models in Asia |date=2002 |publisher=Asian Institute of Development Studies |url=https://www.academia.edu/579451 |language=en}}</ref>

===== Health reforms =====
Walt and Gilson (1994) emphasized the central role of policy analysis in health reforms in developing countries. In their study, they argue that [[health policy]] narrowly focuses on the content of reform, and neglects other crucial considerations such as the context that calls for such reform, the processes involved, and the social actors or the stakeholders associated with the reform.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=WALT|first1=GILL|last2=GILSON|first2=LUCY|date=1994-12-01|title=Reforming the health sector in developing countries: the central role of policy analysis|journal=Health Policy and Planning|language=en|volume=9|issue=4|pages=353–370|doi=10.1093/heapol/9.4.353|pmid=10139469|issn=0268-1080|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Bernardo (2017) has considered that care policies are not the same globally. It has been recommended to create four complementary offices to standardize what is right or wrong to all patients as well as contribute to establishing the key strategies and priorities of the national policy. This includes the managerial office in evidence-based medicine, evidence-generation offices, evidence-implementation offices, and conflict-arbitration offices.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1590/S1679-45082017ED4314| title=Public health policies and scientific evidence| year=2017| last1=Bernardo| first1=Wanderley Marques| journal=Einstein (São Paulo)| volume=15| issue=4| pages=7–10| pmid=29364373| pmc=5875176}}</ref>

'''Community Health'''

The underlying principles of development communication have had significant impact on various levels of policy planning. A UNICEF commissioned report by Galway,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/arsenicun7.pdf|title=Chapter 7 - Communication for Development|last=Galway|first=Michael|date=2001|website=World Health Organization|access-date=4 April 2019}}</ref> for example, cited that there was a large communication initiative in Bangladesh where a national information campaign was launched to raise awareness of villagers on arsenic in drinking water. In his report, "top-down health education models are being replaced with more participatory approaches;" an approach which development communication features as a more effective methodology than linear models of communication. Schiavo also noted that participatory processes provide a platform for health messages and interventions which communicate directly to local communities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiavo|first=Renata|date=2016-01-02|title=The importance of community-based communication for health and social change|journal=Journal of Communication in Healthcare|volume=9|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1080/17538068.2016.1154755|issn=1753-8068|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Information overload and the wastage ratio ====
Fred Fedler (1989),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neill|first1=S.D.|title=Dilemmas in the Study of Information: Exploring the Boundaries of Information Science|date=1992|publisher=. Greenwood Publishing Group.}}</ref> mentioned in the book, Dilemmas in the Study of Information: Exploring the Boundaries of Information Science, describes the impact of the Information age by referring to media's "vulnerability to hoaxes".  Fedler contends "journalists are vulnerable to information and will always be. Journalists cannot determine the truth to the stories they publish, nor check every details. They receive too many stories, and a single story may contain hundreds of details".  In the same vein, this is what majority of the specialists posits as the information explosion.

Now more than ever, information has exceeded in millions of gigabytes. Technology has brought people around the world to be confronted with so much information that utilization of this information has now become an issue.  Dr Paul Marsden<ref>{{cite web|last1=Marsden|first1=Paul|title=Fast Facts: Information Overload 2013|url=http://digitalintelligencetoday.com/fast-facts-information-overload-2013/|website=Digital Intelligence Today|access-date=25 April 2016|archive-date=19 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019192651/http://digitalintelligencetoday.com/fast-facts-information-overload-2013/|url-status=dead}}</ref> of the Digital Intelligence Today defines [[information overload]] as "when the volume of potentially useful and relevant information available exceeds processing capacity and becomes a hindrance rather than a help" (Marsden, 2013).

Dr. Alexander Flor, in his article on the information wastage ratio,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Flor|first1=Alexander|title=Development Communication Praxis|date=2007|publisher=UP Open University}}</ref> argues that although information can be consumed anytime and seldom has expiration date;

"Research information is generated for a particular purpose, a specific user and a definite problem in mind. If such information is unavailable to the right person, at the right time and at the right place, then we conclude that the effort exerted to generate this amount of information has been wasted".

One approach that Flor has postulated to establish the underutilization is his information wastage ratio. The ratio takes into consideration the concepts of information generation (IG) and information utilization (IU) expressed as "wastage ratio that is equivalent to one minus the amount of information utilized divided by the quantity of information generated", thus:

:Wr = 1 – IU/IG

Flor's formula accounts for the information deficit especially, among the Third World countries, where information utilization is constrained by factors such as  "low literacy, limited media access and availability, low computer literacy, low levels of education and unsound communication policy".
The framework that Flor presented is best described as "the communication revolution contributes to the quantity of information generated thus, information explosion happens". Since the relationship of the two phenomena is reciprocal, "the quantity of information, the quality of information and the information overload determine the information wastage in an information society".
The outcome of this wastage ratio provides support for the initiation of communication policies to ensure full utilization of information in varied fields.

====Between research, development and policy====

It is a complex task to achieve effectiveness in development policy especially in rural areas. It involves a range of stakeholders who need to demonstrate coordinated action. Sunitiyoso et al. (2012) claim that holistic thinking is needed to solve public policy problems which requires collaborative efforts across different organizational boundaries.<ref name="Sunitiyoso, Y. 2012">Sunitiyoso, Y., Wicaksono, A., Utomo, D. S., Putro, U. S., & Mangkusubroto, K. (2012). Developing strategic initiatives through Triple Helix interactions: Systems modelling for policy development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 52, 140–149.</ref> The government through its administration must show vigor and integrity to implement these programs. Development policy makers must consider providing education and sustained training in order to materialize the programs provided to the beneficiaries.<ref>Bhatnagar, S. (2000). Social implications of information and communication technology in developing countries: Lessons from Asian success stories. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 1(1), 1–9.</ref> Sustained training does not only rely to ICT, it also needs emotional quotient to motivate beneficiaries to get involved and develop a sense of ownership.  President Julius K. Nyerere once stated that the people must participate in considering, planning, and implementing their development (in Tanganyika African National Union, 1971 ).<ref>Rogers, E. M. (1976). Communication and development: The passing of the dominant paradigm. Communication research, 3(2), 213–240.</ref> Therefore, development can only be achieved when people develop themselves. This has been realized by not only socialist and communist nations, but also by capitalist nations such as Singapore and South Korea. Self- development is usually accompanied by social mobilization by political parties, non- government organizations and workers from the academe.

Scholars have proposed categories for the analysis of changes present in the research and policy sectors. What generates lack of accord between the effectiveness of development communication policy is the unrealized link between the importance of research and development to policy making.<ref>Leydesdorff, L. (2005). The Triple Helix Model and the Study of Knowledge-based Innovation Systems. Int. Journal of Contemporary Sociology 42 (1), 2005, 12–27.</ref> As compared to Europe, the United States and Latin America, the challenges of knowledge and technology transfer have been solved in the forefront of attention in economic, social and industrial policy.<ref>Etzkowitz, H., & Ranga, M. (2015). Triple Helix systems: an analytical framework for innovation policy and practice in the Knowledge Society. In Entrepreneurship and Knowledge Exchange (pp. 117–158). Routledge.</ref>

=====Gap between researchers and policy makers=====
The ''praxis'' or the marriage of research and practice, according to Flor (1991)<ref name=":2" /> is needed to address the pressing social issues that are pestering the society. However, there are factors that delay its realization. According to UNCTAD Virtual Institute (2006), there are still a huge communication gap between researchers and policy makers. On the side of the policy makers, the information on ongoing researchers barely reaches to them. The researchers, on the other hand, lack the awareness and the knowledge on the most important policy that could contribute so much in the research. Here are some common reasons for the wide gap between the two:<ref name=":4" />
Policy makers turn primarily to international organizations, international research institutes or their own technical experts or diplomatic missions to obtain information and analysis as policy inputs. Local universities and research institutes may have the capacity but are often not able to engage in cooperation with policy makers.
Policy-makers consider the credibility of researchers and research outputs a key requirement for cooperation.
Governments lack systematic procedures regarding which research institutions to turn to, and when and how to establish contact with researchers.
Data required for informed research may be non-existent or inaccessible.
Hence, the joint UNCTAD-WTO-ITC workshop on trade policy analysis workshop has forwarded these recommendations for both the research institutions and policy making bodies:<ref name=":4">UNCTAD-WTO-ITC (2006). [http://vi.unctad.org/tda/papers/tradedata/tdarecs.PDF Research-based Policy Making: Bridging the Gap between Researchers and Policy Makers], Recommendations for researchers and policy makers arising from the joint UNCTAD-WTO-ITC workshop on trade policy analysis, Geneva, 11–15 September 2006.</ref>

As a researcher:
Try to disseminate information about current research projects as widely as possible:
Invite concerned government officials to conferences or presentations of research, or organize specific events bringing together policy makers and researchers
Send notes and abstracts to relevant ministries
Distribute research to government agencies but also to NGOs, which might also be among its users. Be ready to discuss work in progress with policy-makers after initial contacts have been established.
Try to get in direct contact, for example with negotiators, by providing them with short notes/abstracts of relevant research findings.
Establish contact and build a long-term cooperation with relevant ministries. The start can be facilitated by having a "champion" in the ministry. However, the researcher/research institution may need to avoid being too closely identified with a "champion", and hence, depending too much on the evolution of the "champion's" status.
Access to high-ranked officials at ministries can be facilitated by involving higher-level representatives at universities (deans, vice-chancellors...) in the establishment and maintenance of contacts. However, more decentralized cooperation can also be productive if he procedures within the university tend to be very hierarchical and bureaucratic.
As a policy maker:
Involve policy-makers in research. Policy-makers who are consulted at the initial stages of a research project tend to be more open since they can actively participate and hence have a stake in shaping the research questions, and thereby take "ownership" of the research as well. Regular interaction during the research project can help adjusting the questions researched and the tools used to the needs of policy makers.
Make sure that your research addresses issues of policy relevance to your country by approaching permanent missions in Geneva which can act as facilitators by providing information regarding current policy-relevant research questions.

=====Bridging the gap through collaboration=====

There has been shift of policy-making from academic sources of development relations between government, academia and industry, and scholars often refer this as "triple helix model". Henry Etzkowitz defines it as "a spiral model of innovation that captures multiple reciprocal relationships at different points in the process of knowledge capitalization."<ref name="Sunitiyoso, Y. 2012"/> Etzkowitz and Melo (2004) stated that recognizing that university is the source of new knowledge, industry is where the practice ground for technology and development and the supporting role of government as policy makers. The importance of collaboration is a successful model in any project management. More so when a holistic approach is applied in policy development, it may be a solution to address the complexity of policy implementation as all stakeholders are required to participate beginning from the conceptualization, planning, policy formulation and implementation.<ref name="Sunitiyoso, Y. 2012"/>

==== Policy sciences ====
Nora Quebral (1971) defines development communication as "the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and larger fulfilment of the human potential".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://devcomconvergence.wordpress.com/tag/nora-c-quebral/|title=Nora C. Quebral – devcomconvergence|website=devcomconvergence.wordpress.com|date=17 August 2013 }}</ref>

The fundamental characteristic that distinguishes development communication from traditional views of mass communication is its purposive nature. According to Flor, policies, being guidelines, imply that certain directions are already assumed. Development communication and the policies sciences stem from the same rationale, which is the need for actively applying knowledge form and principles of the social sciences in order to solve large-scale societal problems under the premise of social change.<ref name=":2" />

Melafopulos (2008) presented two modes or approaches to development communication: the monologic mode and the dialogic mode. The monologic mode is linked to the standpoint of 'diffusion' following the one-way model of communication. The purpose of this mode is to disseminate information and messages to persuade its recipients about the intended change. In short, communication is positioned to (1) inform and (2) persuade. In this model, the feedback is enhanced and canned allowing the sender to refine its persuasive message. On the other hand, dialogic mode is related with the participatory paradigm which follows a two-way communication model. It seeks to create a conducive environment where stakeholders are involved in all stages of the project from the definitions down to the implementation of solutions. This model seeks to make use of communication (1) to assess and (2) to empower. The use of dialogic communication paves the way for building of trust and understanding which is the key to participation and eventually for the empowerment of the people in the grassroots.<ref name=":1" />

Achieving development in the community is collaboration between different stakeholders. Development communication believes that in order to have genuine development, that desire to improve and uplift their lives must come from the grassroots level; it must come from the people. Development communication empowers the people to believe in themselves that they can do something in order to alleviate their standard of living. In their book, [http://booklikes.com/introduction-to-development-communication-ila-virginia-c-ongkiko-alexander-/book,6911885 Introduction to Development Communication], Ongkiko and Flor (2006) claimed that Development communication entails motivating individuals and groups of people such as farmers, fisherfolks, workers, housewives, and the youth to change their habits, their lifestyles, their way of thinking and their way of doing things. This further proves that development communication is not just merely providing facts and information instead its goal is to persuade the people to become an active participant in the achievement of their goals.

Policy sciences refer to the scientific study of policies and policy making. Policy refers to a cluster of decisions with a particular purpose and audience in mind. The word "science" is used to suggest the use of empirical data gathered from systematic observation. The plural form (sciences) is used to underscore the interdisciplinary nature of this field (Allen, 1978). Policy science was conceived in order to cope-up with the fast changing landscape of our society. Because of these changes they called, "turbulent field", the traditional social science methodology was already considered inadequate in solving today's societal problems (Allen, 1978). The goal of policy sciences is to develop and provide concrete solution to the rising problems brought by technological progress.<ref name=":87">{{Cite web |author=Harold D. Lasswell |url=http://www.policysciences.org/classics/preview.pdf |title=A Preview of Policy Sciences |access-date=5 December 2015 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924075209/http://www.policysciences.org/classics/preview.pdf }}</ref>

Policy sciences are concerned with knowledge of and in the decision processes of the public and civic order. Knowledge of the decision process implies systematic, empirical studies of how policies are made and put into effect. When knowledge is systematic, it goes beyond the aphoristic remarks that are strewn through the "wisdom" literature of the past.<ref name=":87"/>

Development communication and policy sciences are two essential elements in resolving recurring dilemma especially in the third world societies.

==== In the Information Age ====
In Flor's ''Developing Societies in the Information Age: A Critical Perspective'', he mentioned the 2000 Okinawa Summit of G7/G8 nations that described information and communications technology or ICT as "one of the most potent forces in shaping the Twenty-first Century...fast becoming a vital engine of growth for the world economy". The summit also decried the existence of a digital divide between rich and poor nations and that the major challenge posed today is to bridge this widening chasm. The Information Age, the so-called third era of human civilization is a pervasive social phenomenon, a global environment. In the Information Age, capital becomes less important than information. In fact, information becomes the "primary resource". There is an observed global shift in resources of power from land, labor and capital to information. The change is more on the nature of resources that are being controlled.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Developing Societies in the Information Age: A Critical Perspective|last=Flor|first=Alexander|date=July 2008|location=Los Baños, Laguna}}</ref>

As Flor stated, "informatization comes with the Information Age. All aspects of society – politics, culture, business and economy – have become increasingly information-oriented. Information gives rise to economies and societies wherein information, naturally, becomes the dominant commodity or resource. Concomitant to informatization is the globalization of the economy. The communications or information revolution has tended to shrink the size of the world, figuratively. Instant communication between two persons situated at opposite sides of the globe is a common occurrence. Distance no longer serves as a minor factor in communication."

===== Information society vs. Information Age =====
An ''[[information society]]'' should be differentiated from ''[[Information Age]]''. An information society refers to a social system, meanwhile, the Information Age refers to an era in human civilization, a worldwide phenomenon. It is possible for people to live in an information age but not in an information society. Observations have also pointed that the trend towards information societies can be found in the Third World. For example, in Asia, certain trends that are indifferent to political developments show that Asia is moving towards that direction. These trends include: the growing demand for mobile devices and software, broadband, Wi-Fi, wi-max services, and even online educational programs.<ref name=":5" />

===== Control through communication =====
"Control is achieved through communication. Norbert Wiener, the father of [[cybernetics]], equated communication with control and observed that it is negatively related to entropy, the tendency for all systems towards breakdown. This function or relationship is magnified in the Information Age." Therefore, in the Information Age, there seems to be a positive [[correlation]] between information and power, between communication and power. The logical consequence of this is the gravitation of [[special interest group]]s to the communication/information industry and the mad scramble for communication resources. Those who will gain access to more resources would understandably hold more political and [[economic power]]. They may, in turn, perpetuate this condition by determining enabling societal structures. According to Flor, information, traditionally defined, is that which contributes to the reduction of uncertainty. Although technically accurate, the definition neglects the social dimension of information. "It is the social function which adds value to information and which gives those who possess it advantage over those who do not. Thus, information should be regarded first and foremost as a resource. As in the case of other resources, there is a tendency for other exploitative groups to hoard information and to use it to further their interests. Information nowadays is associated with influence and power. It is now treated as a dominant commodity under the control and manipulation of the elite." He also noted that "Information resources should contribute more towards equality than exploitation, towards harmony than conflict, towards complementarities than dominance, towards integration than segregation, towards participation than [[elitism]], towards indigenous development than dependency, and towards convergence than divergence."<ref name=":5" />

The availability of information may be a function of the availability of mass media, new media and other channels of information. Availability of communication media is obviously a prerequisite for access. For communities wherein media are relatively unavailable, access to communication media is hampered to a considerable degree.

In contrast, development communication can also be key towards more democratic societies. Democracy has been a prevailing philosophy in many countries for the recent years. However, until today, how democratic institutions affect human well-being, particularly people's health is still argued. Existing evidences are not robust or strong in providing critical insights into the significance of democratic institutions on achieving better life expectancies and reducing mortalities (Besley and Kudamatsu, 2006). Life expectancies have increased dramatically and mortalities have significant reduced over the years. Such progress has been mostly attributed to increasing income per capita (Li and Zhu, 2006), improved medical technologies and interventions (Papageorgiou et al., 2007) and strengthened global collaborations (Elobu et al., 2014, Chu et al., 2014), among others. Previous literature has also favoured more democratic governments in maximizing health systems performance; and thereafter, improving health outcomes. In this view, health outcomes are better achieved because governments are controlled by the majority, leaders are more accountable for the benefit of all rather than minor groups of society, and mechanisms for selecting competent leaders to implement policies are deemed stronger. Despite evidence on its significance, some have still argued that democracy can only be successful in effecting positive impacts only if proper conditions are met. For example, the 1983 Polish health system has moved from a communist model without general practitioners to where clinicians in polyclinics provided free healthcare. The former system was then perceived to be better because the latter created more opportunities for bribery; hence, increasing inequitable access to healthcare (Scully, 2007). Recently, most health systems have transitioned along a continuum of private or market health systems similar to the United States and a public or state health systems similar to the United Kingdom (Chernichovsky, 1995). Such transitions may also be highly attributable to transitions in political states.  In a market/private-based health system similar to the United States health system, medical care is provided by private physicians and by private and public hospitals and patients have free choice of physicians. In addition, most people receive health insurance coverage through their workplace and health insurance is provided by multiple third-party insurers (Chernichovsky, 1995). On the other hand, planned/public-based health systems such as in the United Kingdom expects that healthcare is a right (Chernichovsky, 1995). As such, health demands are provided directly through budgeting and management of providers.  Low and middle income countries (LMICs) are placed in between these continuum. In most LMICs, various health system reforms and transitions have already been done. Despite such transitions, they are still faced with poorer health outcomes and health statuses that are far beyond health targets. Hence, is it really democracy that matters or does it simply serve as proxy for societal and political progress? Some argued that proper conditions must first be met for such gains of democracy to be achieved. Development communication can serve as a tool to ensure the country's visions are aligned, a step towards creating such proper conditions.

===== Information and communication technologies for development =====
In the Information Age, technological growth is a crucial driving force behind economic progress, citizen engagement and job creation. Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are shaping many aspects of the world's economies, governments and societies. Developing countries, too, recognize the importance of engaging various stakeholders to harness the transformative power of ICTs to provide more efficient services, catalyze economic development and strengthen social networks. When done properly and implemented effectively, ICT infrastructure investment and policy reform can empower poverty reduction and shared prosperity.

The World Bank Group's Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector strategy,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/07/25/transform-innovate-connect-strategy-ict|title=Transform, Innovate, and Connect: A New Strategy for Information and Communication Technology|date=2012-07-25}}</ref> which was adopted in 2012, intends to help developing countries make use of the potential of ICTs to improve the delivery of public services; drive innovations and productivity gains; and improve competitiveness. Under the strategy, the World Bank, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) focus on three priorities: (1) ''Transformation'', by making developments more open and accountable and improving service delivery; (2) ''Connectivity'', by scaling up affordable access to broadband including for women, disabled citizens, disadvantaged communities and people living in remote and rural areas; and (3) ''Innovation'', by developing competitive IT-based industries and fostering ICT innovation with a focus on job creation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ict/overview#1|title=Information & Communication Technologies Overview|website=worldbank.org|access-date=2016-03-21}}</ref>

Nascent technologies, such as virtual reality and artificial intelligence, are also set to reshape the development landscape. The United Nations, through its Virtual Reality Series Project, has tapped virtual reality to build platforms for advocacy, awareness, and fundraising.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0Bxu2GOkj6qbRbTlVVnBXZXkwR1E/view|title=Virtual Reality Series|access-date=2017-04-27}}</ref> Its VR production titled [[Clouds over Sidra]] earned accolades for shedding light on the conditions of some 84,000 Syrian refugees in Jordan's Za'atari camp. HTC, developer of the Vive VR system, also supports the UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]] through its "VR for Impact" program, which seeks to "create a pathway to global peace and prosperity together".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vrforimpact.com/|title=VR for Impact|website=vrforimpact.com|access-date=2017-04-27}}</ref> In terms of policy implication, the immersive experience brought about by VR is expected "to elevate the voices of those who often do not have a say, bringing peoples' voices directly into the decision making process".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sdgactioncampaign.org/virtualreality/|title=Virtual Reality and Vulnerable Communities|website=sdgactioncampaign.org/|access-date=2017-04-27|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817031204/https://sdgactioncampaign.org/virtualreality/}}</ref>

==== Digital divide ====
The rapid transformation of technology has revolutionized the way we communicate. As a result, more and more people are getting "wired", which means connected to the Internet. The explosion of information creates an interconnected global village where everyone can easily connect and transact business in a flick of a second. This explosion of information however has widen the gap between the information rich and the information poor creating Digital Divide. Groups or communities that can afford technologies and has full access to the internet are the information rich while the underprivileged are the information poor.<ref name=":5"/>

In his book ''Developing Societies in the Information Age'', Alexander Flor elucidated that digital divide emerges from an information dependent social environment. He further emphasized that "the divide is further aggravated by domineering system between the haves and the have-nots".<ref name=":5"/> In a study conducted by Dr. Alexander Flor from 1983 to 1986 on the widening gap and its implications on the agricultural sector, he found out that "the information rich gets richer while the information poor gets poorer."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Development Communication|last1=Ongkiko|first1=Ila Virginia C.|last2=Flor|first2=Alexander G.|publisher=SEAMEO SEARCA and the University of the Philippines Open University|year=1998|location=Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines|page=145}}</ref>

====Gender equality====

Although the discourse of development communication may recognize the importance of considering gender in the process of social change, organizational structures and norms may inhibit the successful implementation of projects. Despite the considerable attention directed toward women in health, nutrition, and population projects, women's conditions have not improved. This failure should not, however, be attributed as a direct consequence of development communication. Rather, the problematic conditions of women, along with the interventions designed to resolve them, need to be situated within a broader context of discourse and practice that privileges individual consumption and structural privatization in strategies for social change (Watkins, 1999, 63).

Hooda and Singh (2012) note that many feminist scholars recognize that everyday women's participation in the process of communication is essential. Involvement by the women to state their opinions in the institutions and systems that govern their lives is not only for recognition that participation is a basic human right, but also for a redistribution of political power in favor of disadvantaged groups. Involvement in decision-making is primarily about confronting the hegemonic structures of power—locally, nationally and globally (Sheth, 1997). It is a political action, a political struggle, a struggle that is not only among states, but also among people. Indeed, Wong (2012) shows why a discourse on gender matters in ICT for Development. Wong (2012) cites Resurreccion (2011)<ref>Resurreccion, B. (2011) ''The Gender and Climate Debate: More of the Same or New Pathways of Thinking and Doing?'', Asia Security Initiative Policy Series Working Paper no.10. Singapore: Nanyang Technological University.</ref> who stresses that the access to, and the use of, ICTs is gender-shaped in that gender influences how the benefits, costs and risks of ICTs are distributed between, and within, women and men. As noted by Kothari (1985),<ref>Kothari, R. (1985). New social forces. Development: Seeds of Change, 1, 11–14. La touche, S. (1997). Paradoxical growth. In M. Rahnema & V. Bawtree (Eds.), The Post-Development Reader (pp. 135–42). London: Zed Books.</ref> communications is not taken as informatics (alone), but as politics on issues of empowerment.

Information and communication, food security and nutrition, and gender equality are closely linked dimensions of rural development, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)-Dimity Project, 2011.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dimitra Project|title=Dimitra Project: Communicating Gender for Rural Development, Integrating Gender in Communication for Development|url=http://www.fao.org/dimitra/home/en/|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|access-date=26 April 2016}}</ref> The vital contribution of women to the agricultural sphere in developing societies cannot be overemphasized. It's critical to give rural women access to the same resources and opportunities as men in order to be more productive. To achieve enhanced productivity and better performance, women have to be provided access to information, knowledge and decision-making. Hooda and Singh (2011) however opine that with regard to the impact of technologies on women, there has been a tendency on the part of governments and development agencies to treat technologies as neutral, value-free, without taking into account the social, environmental and economic effects of the technology being introduced. A common assumption with respect to technology is that the simple existence of technology itself will advance competence and will thus fetch empowerment and reimbursement to the women. Wong (2012)<ref>Wong, Sam (2012). ''Exploring the 'GenderICTClimate Change' Nexus in Development:'' From Digital Divide to Digital Empowerment. ''Centre for Development Informatics''. Institute for Development Policy and Management, SED</ref> illustrates that restricted access to assets, gender-biased institutional arrangements, and unfavourable social structures have reduced women's capability to draw on ICTs in tackling climate change.  According to Hooda and Singh (2011), focus on ICT competence and capability compromises concerns related to equity. In any case, social equity requires assurance to women's equal opportunity. Therefore, women's equality needs to be integrated as a cornerstone of any development and communication strategy. In addressing these limitations, Wong (2012) outlines four digital empowerment proposals that may make 'ICT climate change' interventions more gender-sensitive:

(1) '''''Contextualise gender mainstreaming''''': gender mainstreaming helps integrate gender analysis into ICT policies. It acknowledges that men and women perceive and receive information differently, and that this requires diverse approaches to adaptation. However, the attempt to reposition women and girls as 'ecocarers' is problematic because this fails to capture their protective, as well as their destructive, role in relation to natural resources. Without addressing the unequal power relations between women

and girls, e-adaptive practices can also help reproduce the intergenerational equalities.

(2) '''''Strengthen governance''''': crafting new and reforming old, institutional arrangements is essential to improve gender inclusion. Women only interventions are sometimes necessary to empower previously excluded women to engage in ICT related decisions. However, poor and powerless men should also have their say in climate change policies.

(3) '''''Develop gender-sensitive funding mechanisms''''': securing adequate funding to support ICT interventions is crucial to gender empowerment. Yet, targeting women by microcredit projects risk putting an additional financial burden on them, and that needs serious reconsideration.

(4) '''''Recognise agency-structure dynamics''''': women are active agents, but they are socially constrained from engaging in ICT related decisions. Women's preferences, institutional arrangements and politics need to be taken into account in order to tackle digital exclusion.

Wong (2012) believes that taking the outlined four proposals are useful for development agencies, governments and NGOs to improve the gendered outcomes from use of ICTs in response to an issue as climate change. Thus, communicating from a gender perspective is important for fighting poverty and for supporting the economic empowerment of women. Women who are frequently the most disadvantaged gender in society are central to development, yet they have very little voice in the process of development planning. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment<ref>{{cite web|last1=USAID|title=Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment|url=https://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/gender-equality-and-womens-empowerment|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150308220801/http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/gender-equality-and-womens-empowerment|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 March 2015|publisher=United States Agency for International Development|access-date=26 April 2016}}</ref> reports that ''"while women make up more than 40 percent of the agriculture labor force, only 3 to 20 percent are landholders. In Africa, women-owned enterprises make up as little as 10 percent of all businesses. In South Asia, that number is only 3 percent. And despite representing half the global population, women comprise less than 20 percent of the world's legislators."''

Advancing gender equality and women's empowerment is a vital key in utilizing human resources and capital on an enormous scale. According to the World Bank, ''"countries with greater gender equality are more prosperous and competitive".'' For communities to grow, gender equality policy and strategies have to be developed and implemented. Women must be provided access to information, technology, and education. They must have equal rights and equal opportunities as entrepreneurs, wage earners, and leaders of our society. Promoting gender equality is a profitable investment we can make to advance women development.

Since its early inception, development communication has been widely utilized by many regions of the world owing its strategic direction of alleviating the lives of the poor by extending knowledge and information to a number of projects and programs intended to create a sustainable life. Hence, development communication practice in various areas of the world yielded a number of policy integrations reflecting its core objectives for an inclusive development. True to its definition, development communication, according to S.T. Kwame Boafo, author of the article 'Utilizing Development Communication Strategies in African Societies: A Critical Perspective', "is the application of modem and traditional communication technologies to aid and enhance the process of socio-economic, political and cultural change. It is the planned, conscious and systematized use of communication strategies and processes to bridge informational and attitudinal gaps and to establish or sustain a climate that favors the process of change and development."<ref name="Boafo1985">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1177/001654928503500202|title = Utilizing Development Communication Strategies in African Societies: A Critical Perspective (Development Communication in Africa)|year = 1985|last1 = Kwame Boafo|first1 = S.T.|journal = Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands)|volume = 35|issue = 2|pages = 83–92| s2cid=220899557 }}</ref> However, this definition itself does not lend the idea that change immediately follows. Hence, Boafo articulated further that the definition above "does not imply that communication or information per se can effect development or change without an integrated and consistently pursued national development policy."<ref name="Boafo1985"/> Therefore, it is vital that development communication should be an integral element in the formulation of national policies so as to utilize its full potential.<ref name="Boafo1985"/>

==== Catholic Church: sample communications policies ====
Christ commissioned the Apostles to preach the Good News to the whole world, a mission extended to all Christians today. Communication therefore is part of following Christ. Being committed to spread the Good News, the Catholic Church has always been at the forefront of communications – from oral preaching, catechesis, personal friendships, small or big groups gatherings (openly or in secret where Christians are persecuted, even in present times), manual copying in papyrus or parchments scrolls, artwork, architecture, oral traditions, printing, theaters, tri-media and online, etc.

For academic studies within the Catholic setting, [[Pontifical Universities in Rome]] offer Bachelor's, Licentiate and Doctoral courses on Church communications, lasting three to six years.

The following guidelines, and communication as a whole, should, as Prof. Flor states, "be employed for the service of others" (Chapter 3, p.&nbsp;7).<ref name=":15" />

'''Catholic Church Communications at the universal Church level: The Pope's Roman Curia'''

The Roman Curia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/index.htm|title=The Roman Curia - Index|website=vatican.va|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref> or the Pope's central administrative office, has a Secretariat for Communication, which coordinates all the media realities in the Vatican:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/motu_proprio/documents/papa-francesco-motu-proprio_20150627_segreteria-comunicazione.html|title=Apostolic Letter issued 'Motu Proprio' "The current context of communications" for the establishment of the Secretariat for Communication (27 June 2015) {{!}} Francis|last=Pope Francis|website=w2.vatican.va|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref>
Pontifical Council for Social Communications
Holy See Press Office
Vatican Internet Service
Vatican Radio
Vatican Television Centre
L'Osservatore Romano
Vatican Printing Press
Photo Service
Vatican Publishing House

This setup is replicated in various degrees in countries all over the world. Communications policies are left to the regional, national or parish levels, rather than having a unified policy for the Catholic Church in the whole world.

Many documents, in the form of reflections or guidelines, have been published on different topics related with communications.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/pccs/index.htm|title=Pontifical Council for Social Communications|website=vatican.va|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref> In this website, one document dates back to 1936, an Encyclical Letter of Pope Pius XI, called "Vigilanti Cura", manifesting his thoughts on the "Motion Picture" as it affects the moral and religious life of Christians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_29061936_vigilanti-cura.html|title=Vigilanti Cura (June 29,&nbsp;1936) {{!}} PIUS XI|last=Pope Pius XI|website=w2.vatican.va|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref>

'''Example of Catholic Church Communications Policies at the Regional Level:''' '''CELAM'''

The Consejo Episcopal LatinoAmericano (CELAM), is the umbrella organization of 22 Episcopal Conferences (groups of Latin American and Caribbean Catholic Bishops, usually by country).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.celam.org/|title=CELAM - Consejo Episcopal Latinoamericano|website=celam.org|language=es|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref> Its office is based in Bogotá, Colombia, and has a Department of Communications and Press.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.celam.org/dep_comunicacion.php|title=CELAM - Consejo Episcopal Latinoamericano|website=celam.org|language=es|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref>

While no Communications Policy is posted on CELAM's website (nor is any retrievable online), there is a link to a presentation of the Department's four programs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.celam.org/programas/COMUNICACION_Y_PRENSA.pdf|title=DEPARTAMENTO DE COMUNICACIÓN Y PRENSA|last=CELAM}}</ref> Specific objectives contained therein could be considered as general directives indicating what the different lower levels of Church organization should undertake (my own translation from Spanish follows):
Common Communication Efforts in Communion and Dialogue towards Fraternity
Formation and Expression in Communication for the Development of the Culture of Encounter and the Announcing the Good News
Communication for the Transformation of Reality Towards the Fullness of Life of our Peoples
Inter-institutional Communion and Dialogue (within the Church)

CELAM is situated at a very broad level, covering part of North America (Mexico), the whole of Central and South America, and the Caribbeans. It is quite typical for Church documents at a high level, to focus heavily on principles, objectives and generalized directives; meanwhile, the concrete communications policies would be left to the local levels.

'''Example of Catholic Church Communications Policies at the National Level: USCCB Social Media Guidelines'''

The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) "is an assembly of the hierarchy of the United States and the U.S. Virgin Islands who jointly exercise certain pastoral functions on behalf of the Christian faithful of the United States.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/about/|title=USCCB|website=usccb.org|language=en|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref> As its Introduction states, "These guidelines are offered as a synthesis of best practices. They include material compiled from church entities, for-profit corporations, and non-profit organizations", presented as an aide to come up with local or organizational communications policies when it comes to the social media.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/about/communications/social-media-guidelines.cfm|title=Social Media Guidelines|last=USCCB|website=usccb.org|language=en|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref>
It begins with guiding principles, quoting from Pope Francis: "Communication is a means of expressing the missionary vocation of the entire Church; today the social networks are one way to experience this call to discover the beauty of faith, the beauty of encountering Christ. In the area of communications too, we need a Church capable of bringing warmth and of stirring hearts".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/messages/communications/documents/papa-francesco_20140124_messaggio-comunicazioni-sociali.html|title=XLVIII World Communications Day, 2014 - Communications at the Service of an Authentic Culture of Encounter|last=Pope Francis|website=w2.vatican.va|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref>

Social media is a powerful instrument, changing the way people communicate. Pope Benedict XVI says that the Church has to be involved in social media to advance its mission of spreading the Good News, at the same time encouraging respect and dialogue, true friendship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/messages/communications/documents/hf_ben-xvi_mes_20090124_43rd-world-communications-day.html|title=43rd World Communications Day, 2009 - New Technologies, New Relationships. Promoting a Culture of Respect, Dialogue and Friendship|last=Pope Benedict XVI|website=w2.vatican.va|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref> In addition, the Church encourages a responsible use of these social media, in the midst of opportunities and challenges when it comes to visibility, the community and accountability.<ref name=":16" />

The USCCB document tries to cover all the areas in social media, suggesting the following elements to be included when parishes or other Church organizations develop guidelines: define boundaries, include examples of codes of conduct, define instructions, recommendations on dealing with offenders, providing trusted sites, and reminding administrators of their broad audience. Guidelines are also provided for organizational and personal sites, and social networking with minors.

'''Example of Catholic Church Communications Policies at the Local Level: St. Mary Magdalene Catholic Church, in Simpsonville, South Carolina, USA'''

These policies pertain to the parish's:

Internal Communication, such as:
Mass Announcements
Welcome/Newcomer Information
Mailings to parishioners
Email communications
[[Parish bulletin]]
Parish events for parishioners
Distributed materials

and External Communication, such as:
Marquee on the parish sign
Media interviews
Parish events open to public
Parish website
Press releases
Social media
Community Solicitations<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.smmcc.org/205|title=Communications Policy & Procedures|work=St. Mary Magdalene Catholic Church|access-date=2018-05-17|language=en|archive-date=18 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518054517/https://www.smmcc.org/205|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Being a parish that serves the churchgoers, St. Mary Magdalene Catholic Church tries to make clear the procedures that would make the communications processes as efficient as possible. The document is quite detailed, allowing the reader (whether a parish employee, or the public) to know exactly how to proceed in each scenario.