Editing Federal Triangle (section)

==Labor issues during 1930s construction==
[[File:OldPostOfficePennAve.jpg|thumb|A photo of [[Pennsylvania Avenue]] NW and the red rooftops of Federal Triangle, the Internal Revenue Building addition, the [[United States Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]], the [[National Archives]] (square-topped building), the rotunda belongs of the [[National Gallery of Art]], and the [[United States Capitol|U.S. Capitol]] in the distance]]
[[File:Arched architectural detail in the Federal Triangle located in Washington, D.C LCCN2011630984.tif|thumb|Architectural detail of an arched walkway]]
[[File:Ariel Rios Building EPA.jpg|thumb|The [[William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building]], completed in 1934]]
Labor-management troubles occurred throughout construction of the initial seven buildings in the Federal Triangle complex in the 1920s and 1930s. Much of [[Washington, D.C.]]'s, construction workforce was [[trade union|unionized]] many years before the project began. All the building contractors employed by the federal government signed three-year contracts with the major labor unions representing their workers in September 1929, in the hope that this would eliminate any disruptions during the building program.<ref>"Labor Pacts Ends Building Worries." ''Washington Post.'' September 17, 1929.</ref> But this hope proved false.

The first problem occurred in July 1930, when the [[lathe]]rs union [[strike action|went on strike]] to win a $2 per day (16.7 percent) pay increase, halting work for a short period of time on the Archives, Interstate Commerce, Justice, Labor, and Post Office sites.<ref>"Strike of Lathers May Be Adjusted At Meeting Today." ''Washington Post.'' July 10, 1930.</ref> A second strike occurred in late summer 1931 over a new federal wage law. The [[Davis–Bacon Act]] was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Hoover on March 3, 1931. On August 4, 1931, painters working on the Internal Revenue building went on strike, arguing that out-of-town workers were being imported into the city to work on the building and being paid $5-to-$7 a day rather than the prevailing local wage rate of $11 a day.<ref>"Painters Protest Wages On Job At Revenue Building." ''Washington Post.'' August 4, 1931.</ref> Both the Treasury and Labor Departments stepped in to arbitrate the strike.<ref>"Painters' Pay Row Settlement Near." ''Washington Post.'' August 6, 1931.</ref> The dispute was settled a few days later when the Labor Department found that the contractor had paid the correct wages, and that no workers were being paid overtime.<ref>"Meeting to Settle Painter Wage Fight." ''Washington Post.'' August 7, 1931; "Federal Builders Painters' Wages Defended in Reply." ''Washington Post.'' August 8, 1931.</ref><ref>During the Great Depression, the federal government and labor unions discouraged businesses from asking existing employees to work overtime.  With unemployment skyrocketing, businesses instead were encouraged to hire temporary workers, so that more people might work and thus feed and shelter themselves (as well as stay off public assistance rolls). See: Schlesinger, Arthur M. ''The Age of Roosevelt: The Crisis of the Old Order, 1919–1933.'' Paperback ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1957. {{ISBN|0-618-34085-8}}</ref>

The construction project's labor troubles worsened in 1933. With the Depression deepening, contractors were pressing for a 27.3 percent wage cut with their unions, particularly the [[United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America|carpenters' union]]. On January 6, 1933, a fire swept through the upper floors of the unfinished ICC building.<ref>"Flames Damage New I.C.C. Building." ''Washington Post.'' January 7, 1933.</ref> The fire was ruled [[arson]] and a "disgruntled carpenter" was suspected.<ref>"Sabotage Scheme Seen in I.C.C. Fire." ''Washington Post.'' January 8, 1933.</ref> Two weeks later, the [[International Union of Operating Engineers|operating engineers]] and [[United Association|steamfitters]] unions engaged in a [[jurisdictional strike]] against one another, stopping work at the Post Office construction site, but the AFL intervened and arbitrated a solution to the dispute.<ref>"Postoffice Strike Laid Before A.F.L. For Early Decision." ''Washington Post.'' January 21, 1933.</ref> The earlier wage dispute, however, had not been resolved, and by February a general strike among all unionized workers at the Federal Triangle complex seemed likely.<ref>"General Strike Looms In May Pay Slash Row." ''Washington Post.'' February 5, 1933; "Mall Wage Cutting Struggle to Reach Decision This Week." ''Washington Post.'' February 6, 1933; "Walkout on 7 Triangle Jobs Is Threatened." ''Washington Post.'' February 7, 1933.</ref> Employers said they would fire all unionized workers if a strike occurred and replace them with [[strikebreaker]]s.<ref>"Labor Marks Time As Crisis Nears In Mall Wage Battle." ''Washington Post.'' February 8, 1933.</ref> The two sides agreed to let the Treasury Department arbitrate their dispute,<ref>"Labor Disputants Look to Treasury in Mall Impasse." ''Washington Post.'' February 10, 1933.</ref> and on February 13 the government ruled in favor of the unions—averting a job action.<ref>"Mall Workers Win Ruling On $11 Daily Wage." ''Washington Post.'' February 14, 1933.</ref> The employers went to court, and in April 1933 the carpenters union agreed to the 27.3 percent wage cut.<ref>"Carpenters Accept Wage Scale of $8." ''Washington Post.'' April 15, 1933.</ref>

The second major wage dispute of 1933 broke out in May. On May 26, more than 500 members of the [[Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association|plasterers' union]] went on strike to prevent a $2 (14.3 percent) pay cut, halting all work on the seven active Federal Triangle constructions sites.<ref>"Fight On Plasterer Wages Halts Work On 7 U.S. Buildings." ''Washington Post.'' May 27, 1933.</ref> The employers and the [[American Institute of Architects]] both argued that the higher wage would inhibit economic recovery in the construction industry.<ref>"Builders Protest Plasterers' Wage." ''Washington Post.'' May 30, 1933; "Architects Rap $14 Plaster Pay." ''Washington Post.'' June 8, 1933; "Plasterers $14 Pay Delays Normalcy Architects Assert." ''Washington Post.'' June 10, 1933.</ref> To prove their point, the employers [[Lockout (industry)|locked out]] the workers; the strike collapsed, and plasterers went back to work on July 22.<ref>Pay did not actually drop to $12 a day until September 8, 1933. See: "Plasterers Back At Work Tomorrow." ''Washington Post.'' July 23, 1933.</ref>

August 1933 saw the eruption of a series of labor-management disputes and inter-union squabbles that put construction of the Federal Triangle complex on hold for several months. The first event was when the [[Laborers' International Union of North America|Journeyman Stonecutters Association of North America]] walked out on a jurisdictional strike against the [[International Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental and Reinforcing Iron Workers|iron workers' union]] on August 21, idling 225 men working on the Post Office building.<ref name="Walkout">"Walkout on U.S. Building Costs $500 Each Day." ''Washington Post.'' September 1, 1933.</ref> The dispute was over which union would ride with crane operators to coordinate the movement of loads with workers on the ground.<ref name="Walkout" /> The strike lasted at least until September 7, with both sides seeking a decision from the American Federation of Labor.<ref>"Strikers Wait For Employers To End Dispute." ''Washington Post.''September 7, 1933.</ref> Then on September 1, 75 carpenters walked off the job in a jurisdictional dispute with the iron worker's union.<ref name="Serious">"U.S. Building Strike Takes Serious Turn." ''Washington Post.'' September 12, 1933.</ref> This dispute, which occurred at the Labor/ICC building, was over which workers would be permitted to install decorative enclosures around radiators.<ref name="Serious" /> With work on the Labor/ICC buildings already two months behind schedule due to the earlier labor disputes, the employers threatened to stop all work if the carpenters' union struck and throw another 1,000 men out of work.<ref>"Strike Is Likely To Halt Public Building Work." ''Washington Post.'' September 13, 1933.</ref> The employers shut down on September 15.<ref>"1,000 Workers Will Be Idle In Union Row." ''Washington Post.'' September 15, 1933; "Lay-Off Halts Work on Two U.S. Buildings." ''Washington Post.'' September 16, 1933.</ref> Twenty security guards were stationed at the Labor/ICC building to prevent vandalism.<ref>"U.S. Building Labor Dispute In Deadlock." ''Washington Post.'' September 17, 1933.</ref> On September 18, a third jurisdictional strike occurred when the [[United Association|boilermakers' union]] walked off the job at the Federal Triangle central heating plant to protest the use of iron workers in the erection of smokestacks for the facility.<ref name="Heating">"Heating Plant Work Is Halted By New Strike." ''Washington Post.'' September 19, 1933.</ref> Construction of the smokestacks continued, but construction of the boilers was halted.<ref name="Heating" /> A fourth jurisdictional strike erupted on September 20, when 80 members of the [[International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers|bricklayers' union]] walked off the job at the heating plant to protest the use of [[Laborers' International Union of North America|laborers]] to caulk windows, stone, and roof tiles.<ref>"U.S. Projects Face Walkout Of Bricklayers." ''Washington Post.'' September 21, 1933.</ref> Although the bricklayers remained on the job for the moment, government officials feared that [[sympathy strike]]s would occur, stopping work at all seven construction sites.<ref name="UnionRejects">"Union Rejects U.S. Building Job Arbitration." ''Washington Post.'' September 23, 1933.</ref><ref>"U.S. Officials Fearing Spread Of Labor Row." ''Washington Post.'' September 24, 1933.</ref> The carpenters rejected a call for the government to arbitrate the strike,<ref name="UnionRejects" /> and the employers asked for [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Robert F. Wagner]] (a proponent of organized labor) to help settle the disputes.<ref>"Stewart Asks Wagner's Help In Labor Row." ''Washington Post.'' September 26, 1933.</ref> On September 26, the AFL ruled that the smokestack work properly belonged to the iron workers, and ordered the boilermakers back to work.<ref name="Ordered">"Heating Plant Boilermakers Ordered Back." ''Washington Post.'' September 27, 1933.</ref> But the carpenters' union initiated a new protest, arguing that the installation of pulley linings in elevators belonged to them and not to the [[International Union of Elevator Constructors|elevator constructors' union]].<ref name="Ordered" /> And the Washington Building and Construction Trades Council threatened to call a general strike of all construction workers if the bricklayers were not pulled off the job installing boiler insulation and the [[International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Allied Workers|asbestos workers' union]] allowed to do the job instead.<ref name="Ordered" /> Senator Wagner also said on Sept. 28 that he believed a resolution to the carpenters/iron workers dispute (which had led to the layoff of 1,000 workers at the Labor/ICC building) could be reached.<ref name="Ordered" /><ref name="Silent" /> But the boilermakers did not return to work, leaving 450 workers laid off.<ref name="Silent">"Boilermakers Silent in Move To Halt Strike." ''Washington Post.'' September 28, 1933.</ref> Meanwhile, government officials said that the caulking, insulation, and pulley work disputes would be resolved soon, and would not in any case cause further disruptions at construction sites.<ref name="Silent" /> Another major work disruption threatened the Federal Triangle complex when the iron workers' union demanded that contractors initiate two four-hour shifts per day rather than one eight-hour shift per day in order to spread work among more men.<ref name="FourHour">"Four-Hour Day Demand Halts U.S. Building." ''Washington Post.'' October 4, 1933.</ref> When contractors balked, the union struck at the Post Office and Justice building sites.<ref name="FourHour" /> That strike lasted two days before about half of the employers capitulated.<ref>"Strike Perils I.C.C.-Labor Elevator Work." ''Washington Post.'' October 7, 1933.</ref> But it continued for the remaining employers at the Justice and Post Office buildings.<ref>"Work Stopped By Contractor In Labor Row." ''Washington Post.'' October 11, 1933.</ref> Finally, on October 11, 1933, frustrated and angry Labor Department officials said that unless the jurisdictional disputes were ended quickly, the government would seek authorization from Congress in January to force the unions back to work and resolve the disputes itself.<ref>"Plan to Break U.S. Buildings Strikes Told." ''Washington Post.'' October 12, 1933.</ref> The threat worked:  On October 13, all parties to all jurisdictional disputes agreed to return to work while continuing to seek resolution to their problems via other channels.<ref name="Abandon">"1,000 Abandon Strike in U.S. Building Row." ''Washington Post.'' October 14, 1933; "500 Men Back On Federal Job In Labor Clash 
One Iron Workers' Group Resumes Work on I.C.C. Structure." ''Washington Post.'' October 17, 1933.</ref> Federal officials excoriated the carpenters' union for holding up a $40,000-a-week payroll for four weeks over an $800 job.<ref name="Abandon" /> Eleven days later, the iron workers' union agreed to return to the eight-hour shift.<ref>"Builders Win 4-Hour Day Labor Battle." ''Washington Post.'' October 25, 1933.</ref>

The labor peace was short-lived. Four unions refused to do work on the Post Office [[conveyor belt]] system in mid-November,<ref>"Labor Dispute Still Delaying Post office Job." ''Washington Post.'' December 7, 1933.</ref> and the dispute over elevators spread to the Labor/ICC building in February 1934 (delaying the building's opening indefinitely).<ref>"Labor Fight Delays Work On Buildings." ''Washington Post.'' February 1, 1934.</ref> On February 14, 1934, 225 carpenters engaged in a jurisdictional strike against the [[Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association|cement finishers' union]] at the Labor/ICC building over the installation of tile flooring.<ref>"U.S. Building Faces Delay As 225 Quit." ''Washington Post.'' February 15, 1934.</ref> The dispute was elevated to AFL President William Green,<ref>"Labor-I.C.C. Building Row Up to Green." ''Washington Post.'' March 2, 1934.</ref> Green awarded the job to the cement finishers on March 17.<ref>"Green Claims U.S. Building Strike Peace." ''Washington Post.'' March 17, 1934; "Disputed Work To Cement Men Green Awards." ''Washington Post.'' March 18, 1934.</ref> But just three weeks later, the plasterers' union led a jurisdictional strike against the stonecutters' union at the Labor/ICC building because the stonecutters were installing acoustical marble columns.<ref>"Jurisdictional Strikes." ''Washington Post.'' April 16, 1934; "Building Strike Continues Here." ''Washington Post.'' April 21, 1934.</ref> Contractors, angry at the repeated inter-union squabbles, announced they would no longer employ reduced-hour shifts or give pay raises.<ref>"Pay Raises Are Banned By Builders." ''Washington Post.'' May 19, 1934.</ref> The carpenters' union called for a general strike of all unions at the Labor/ICC building on May 25,<ref>"General Strike On Labor-I.C.C. Building Called." ''Washington Post.'' May 26, 1934.</ref> a strike which spread to the city's ice cream plants.<ref name="IceCream">"D.C. Ice Cream Strike Ended; Began May 15." ''Washington Post.'' June 6, 1934.</ref> That secondary strike ended June 4.<ref name="IceCream" /> But the general construction strike began to spread to other federal projects throughout the city, leading to an increasing number of calls for the strike to be settled by arbitration.<ref>"Building Strike May Be Settled By Arbitration." ''Washington Post.'' June 11, 1934.</ref> As the work stoppage spread, the carpenters' union's contract with the construction companies expired on May 30.<ref name="EndStrike">"Carpenters End Strike, Accept $10 a Day Wage, Return to Jobs Today." ''Washington Post.'' June 20, 1934.</ref> The employers declared on June 12 that they would no longer adhere to any [[closed shop]] agreements with the carpenters, and instead would impose the [[open shop]] and employ any carpenter (union or non-union) in order to finish the work on existing construction projects.<ref name="OpenShop">"All Builders Defy Unions, Go Open Shop." ''Washington Post.'' June 13, 1934.</ref> The construction unions declared they would pull every worker off every job if non-union construction laborers were hired, and the D.C Metropolitan Police Department made preparations to patrol streets and job sites to prevent any violence from erupting.<ref name="OpenShop" /> Non-union workers were hired,<ref name="EndStrike" /> and the carpenters' union went on strike at all job sites throughout the city amidst fears that the carpenters might strike all federal construction projects nationwide.<ref name="PeaceFails">"D.C. Strike Peace Fails, 3 Hurt in First Clash of Open Shop Warfare." ''Washington Post.'' June 14, 1934.</ref> Three union members were injured on June 13 as picketers clashed with security guards hired by the employers.<ref name="PeaceFails" /> But the strike did not spread to the other unions,<ref name="EndStrike" /> and the Washington Building and Construction Trades Council and [[District of Columbia home rule|D.C. Commissioner]] George E. Allen attempted to mediate an end to the strike.<ref>"Trades Council Urges Arbiters For D.C. Strike." ''Washington Post.'' June 15, 1934.</ref> The carpenters rejected the arbitration attempt,<ref>"Carpenters Spurn Strike Arbitration." ''Washington Post.'' June 16, 1934.</ref> and bands of roving picketers moving among construction sites led to traffic tie-ups, frightened citizens, and rumors of violence.<ref>Gross, Gerald G. "Carpenters Keep City in Turmoil." ''Washington Post.'' June 17, 1934.</ref> The "open shop strike" ended on June 20, 1934, when the carpenters agreed to a new contract providing for a five-day, 40-hour work week and $1.25 an hour in pay.<ref name="EndStrike" /> But no agreement was made regarding the open shop.<ref name="EndStrike" /> The plasterers' union ended their strike in June 1934, and went to local district court to resolve the jurisdictional dispute.<ref>"Union Dispute Aired in Court." ''Washington Post.'' June 21, 1934.</ref>

The final labor dispute to affect the Federal Triangle complex construction was a jurisdictional strike over the installation of library shelving at the National Archives building in November 1935.<ref>"Strike Over Book Stacks Halts Archives Building Work Again." ''Washington Post.'' November 26, 1935.</ref>