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Forced displacement
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== Responses to forced displacement == === International response === Responses to situations of forced displacement vary across regional and international levels, with each type of forced displacement demonstrating unique characteristics and the need for a considerate approach. At the international level, international organizations (e.g. the [[UNHCR]]), NGOs ([[Médecins Sans Frontières|Doctors without Borders]]), and country governments ([[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]]) may work towards directly or indirectly ameliorating these situations.<ref name=":82"/> Means may include establishing internationally recognized protections, providing clinics to migrant camps, and supplying resources to populations.<ref name=":72"/><ref name="USAID"/> According to researchers such as Francis Deng, as well as international organizations such as the [[United Nations|UN]], an increase in [[Internally displaced person|IDPs]] compounds the difficulty of international responses, posing issues of incomplete information and questions regarding state sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Response to Internal Displacement: A Revolution in the Making|url=https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1372&context=hrbrief|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref><ref name=":82"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Global report on internal displacement|last=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre Herausgebendes Organ.|oclc=1089711735}}</ref> State sovereignty especially becomes of concern when discussing protections for IDPs, who are within the borders of a sovereign state, placing reluctance in the international community's ability to respond.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|date=2012-06-30|title=Conflict, International Response, and Forced Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1980-2007|journal=The Korean Journal of International Studies|doi=10.14731/kjis.2012.06.10.1.1|issn=2233-470X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Multiple landmark conventions aim at providing rights and protections to the different categories of forcibly displaced persons, including the [[1951 Refugee Convention]], the [[1967 Protocol]], the [[Kampala Convention]], and the [[Guiding Principles|1998 Guiding Principles]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abbas|first1=Mohamed|last2=Aloudat|first2=Tammam|last3=Bartolomei|first3=Javier|last4=Carballo|first4=Manuel|last5=Durieux-Paillard|first5=Sophie|last6=Gabus|first6=Laure|last7=Jablonka|first7=Alexandra|last8=Jackson|first8=Yves|last9=Kaojaroen|first9=Kanokporn|date=December 2018|title=Migrant and refugee populations: a public health and policy perspective on a continuing global crisis|journal=Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control|volume=7|issue=1|pages=113|doi=10.1186/s13756-018-0403-4|issn=2047-2994|pmc=6146746|pmid=30250735 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":12"/> Despite internationally cooperation, these frameworks rely on the international system, which states may disregard. In a 2012 study, Young Hoon Song found that nations "very selectively" responded to instances of forced migration and internally displaced persons.<ref name=":9" /> World organizations such as the United Nations and the [[World Bank]], as well as individual countries, sometimes directly respond to the challenges faced by displaced people, providing humanitarian assistance or [[Peacekeeping|forcibly intervening]] in the country of conflict. Disputes related to these organizations' neutrality and limited resources has affected the capabilities of international humanitarian action to mitigate mass displacement mass displacement's causes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Castles|first=Stephen|s2cid=84460606|date=2003-09-01|title=The International Politics of Forced Migration|journal=Development|volume=46|issue=3|pages=11–20|doi=10.1177/10116370030463003|doi-broken-date=20 January 2025 }}</ref> These broad forms of assistance sometimes do not fully address the multidimensional needs of displaced persons. Regardless, calls for multilateral responses echo across organizations in the face of falling international cooperation. These organizations propose more comprehensive approaches, calling for improved conflict resolution and capacity-building in order to reduce instances of forced displacement.<ref>Grandi, Filippo. 2018. “Forced Displacement Today: Why Multilateralism Matters.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 24 (2): 179–89.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Forced Displacement|last1=Christensen|first1=Asger|last2=Harild|first2=Niels|s2cid=153942656|date=December 2009|publisher=World Bank|doi = 10.1596/27717|url=http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/27717 }}</ref> === Local response === Responses at multiple levels<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Szkudlarek|first1=Betina|last2=Nardon|first2=Luciara|last3=Osland|first3=Joyce S.|last4=Adler|first4=Nancy J.|last5=Lee|first5=Eun Su|date=August 2021|title=When Context Matters: What Happens to International Theory When Researchers Study Refugees|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amp.2018.0150|journal=Academy of Management Perspectives|language=en|volume=35|issue=3|pages=461–484|doi=10.5465/amp.2018.0150|issn=1558-9080|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and across sectors is vital.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Lee|first1=Eun Su|date=2021-08-16|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/978-1-83982-826-320211011/full/html|work=Intercultural Management in Practice|pages=121–129|editor-last=Chavan|editor-first=Meena|publisher=Emerald Publishing Limited|doi=10.1108/978-1-83982-826-320211011|isbn=978-1-83982-827-0|access-date=2021-09-27|last2=Roy|first2=Priya A.|last3=Szkudlarek|first3=Betina|title=Integrating Refugees into the Workplace – A Collaborative Approach |s2cid=238706123|editor2-last=Taksa|editor2-first=Lucy|url-access=subscription}}</ref> A research has for instance highlighted the importance of collaboration between businesses and non-governmental organizations to tackle resettlement and employment issues.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Eun Su|last2=Szkudlarek|first2=Betina|date=2021-04-14|title=Refugee employment support: The HRM–CSR nexus and stakeholder co-dependency|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12352|journal=Human Resource Management Journal|volume=31|issue=4|language=en|pages=1748–8583.12352|doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12352|s2cid=234855263|issn=0954-5395|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Lived in experiences of displaced persons will vary according to the state and local policies of their country of relocation. Policies reflecting national exclusion of displaced persons may be undone by inclusive urban policies. Sanctuary cities are an example of spaces that regulate their cooperation or participation with immigration law enforcement.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Houston|first=Serin|s2cid=166602825|date=2019-02-06|title=Conceptualizing sanctuary as a process in the United States|journal=Geographical Review|volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=562–579 |doi=10.1111/gere.12338|bibcode=2019GeoRv.109..562H |issn=0016-7428}}</ref> The practice of urban membership upon residence allows displaced persons to have access to city services and benefits, regardless of their legal status.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaufmann|first=David|date=2019-02-11|title=Comparing Urban Citizenship, Sanctuary Cities, Local Bureaucratic Membership, and Regularizations|journal=Public Administration Review|volume=79|issue=3|pages=443–446|doi=10.1111/puar.13029|s2cid=159209267|issn=0033-3352|url=https://boris.unibe.ch/131145/}}</ref> Sanctuary cities have been able to provide migrants with greater mobility and participation in activities limiting the collection of personal information, issuing identification cards to all residents, and providing access to crucial services such as health care.<ref name=":2" /> Access to these services can ease the hardships of displaced people by allowing them to healthily adjust to life after displacement . ===Criminal prosecution=== Forced displacement has been the subject of several trials in local and international courts. For an offense to classify as a [[war crime]], the civilian victim must be a "[[Protected persons|protected person]]" under [[international humanitarian law]]. Originally referring only categories of individuals explicitly protected under one of the four [[Geneva Conventions of 1949]], "protected person" now refers to any category of individuals entitled to protection under specific [[law of war]] treaties.<ref name="UNHCR">{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/4e0344b344.pdf|title=Legal and Protection Policy Research Series: Forced Displacement and International Crimes|author=Guido Acquaviva|date=June 2011|publisher=UNHCR|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref> In Article 49, the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]], adopted on 12 August 1949, specifically forbade forced displacement{{quote3|Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/WebART/380-600056 |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross|ICRC]] |title=Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949 – DEPORTATIONS, TRANSFERS, EVACUATIONS |access-date=8 May 2018}}</ref>}}The [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] defines forced displacement as a crime within the jurisdiction of the court:{{quote3|"Deportation or forcible transfer of population" means forced displacement of the people concerned by expulsion or other coercive acts from the area in which they are lawfully present, without grounds permitted under international law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/ADD16852-AEE9-4757-ABE7-9CDC7CF02886/283503/RomeStatutEng1.pdf |publisher=International Criminal Court |title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court |year=2011 |page=7|access-date=8 May 2018}}</ref>}} * Following the end of [[World War II]], the [[Krupp trial]] was held with a specific charge to the forced displacement of enemy civilian populations for the purpose of [[Forced labour|forced labor]]. The US Military [[Tribunal]] concluded that "[t]here is no [[international law]] that permits the [[deportation]] or the use of civilians against their will for other than on reasonable requisitions for the need of the army, either within the area of the army or after deportation to rear areas or to the homeland of the occupying power".<ref name="UNHCR" /> * At the [[Nuremberg trials]], [[Hans Frank]], chief jurist in [[occupied Poland]], was found guilty, among others for forced displacement of the civilian population. * Several people were tried and convicted by the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) for connection to forced displacement during the [[Yugoslav Wars]] in the 1990s. On 11 April 2018, the Appeals Chamber sentenced [[Vojislav Šešelj]] 10 years in prison under Counts 1, 10, and 11 of the indictment for instigating [[deportation]], [[persecution]] (forcible displacement), and other inhumane acts (forcible transfer) as [[crimes against humanity]] due to his speech in Hrtkovci on 6 May 1992, in which he called for the [[expulsion of Croats from Vojvodina]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unmict.org/en/news/appeals-chamber-reverses-%C5%A1e%C5%A1elj%E2%80%99s-acquittal-part-and-convicts-him-crimes-against-humanity|title=APPEALS CHAMBER REVERSES ŠEŠELJ'S ACQUITTAL, IN PART, AND CONVICTS HIM OF CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY|work=United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals |date=11 April 2018|publisher=United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/europe/un-court-sentences-ultranationalist-serb-leader-to-10-years-16638|title=UN court sentences ultranationalist Serb leader to 10 years|publisher=[[TRT World]]|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/04/serbia-conviction-of-war-criminal-delivers-long-overdue-justice-to-victims/|title=Serbia: Conviction of war criminal delivers long overdue justice to victims|date=11 April 2018|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref> Other convictions for forced displacement included ex-Bosnian Serb politician [[Momčilo Krajišnik]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2009/09/311692-un-tribunal-transfers-former-bosnian-serb-leader-uk-prison|title=UN tribunal transfers former Bosnian Serb leader to UK prison|date=8 September 2009|publisher=UN News|access-date=15 April 2018}}</ref> ex-Croatian Serb leader [[Milan Martić]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2008/10/277112-un-tribunal-upholds-35-year-jail-term-leader-breakaway-croatian-serb-state|title=UN tribunal upholds 35-year jail term for leader of breakaway Croatian Serb state|date=8 October 2008|publisher=UN News|access-date=15 April 2018}}</ref> former Bosnian Croat paramilitary commander [[Mladen Naletilić]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2008/04/257282-bosnian-croat-commander-convicted-un-tribunal-serve-jail-term-italy|title=Bosnian Croat commander convicted by UN tribunal to serve jail term in Italy|date=25 April 2008|publisher=UN News|access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> and Bosnian Serb politician [[Radoslav Brđanin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2008/03/251232-bosnian-serb-politician-convicted-un-tribunal-serve-jail-term-denmark|title=Bosnian Serb politician convicted by UN tribunal to serve jail term in Denmark|date=4 March 2008|publisher=UN News|access-date=8 May 2018}}</ref> * On 17 March 2023, the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) issued arrest warrants for [[Vladimir Putin]] and Russia's Commissioner for Children's Rights [[Maria Lvova-Belova]] for war crimes of [[Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|deportation and illegal transfer of children]] from [[Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine|occupied Ukraine]] to Russia.<ref>{{cite news| date=17 March 2023| work=UN News| title=Russia: International Criminal Court issues arrest warrant for Putin| url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/03/1134732}}</ref>
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