Editing Instructional scaffolding (section)

=== Minimal guidance in education ===
<blockquote>With traditional power dynamics in the classroom, the teacher is the authority. In order to engage in meaningful student talk, we need to break this hierarchy.''<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Toro |first=Stephanie |date=2021-09-08 |title=Giving Students More Authority in Classroom Discussions |url=https://www.edutopia.org/article/giving-students-more-authority-classroom-discussions/ |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=[[Edutopia]]}}</ref>''</blockquote>Minimal guidance is a general term applied to a variety of pedagogical approaches such as [[Inquiry-based learning|inquiry learning]], learner-centered pedagogy, [[student-centered learning]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Liebtag |first=Emily |date=2017-08-09 |title=8 Things to Look For in a Student-Centered Learning Environment |url=https://www.gettingsmart.com/2017/08/09/8-things-look-student-centered-learning-environment/ |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=Getting Smart |language=en-US}}</ref> [[project-based learning]], and [[discovery learning]]. It is the idea that learners, regardless of their level of expertise, will learn best through discovering and/or constructing information for themselves in contrast to more teacher-led classrooms which in contrast are described as more passive learning.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Kirschner |first1=Paul A. |last2=Sweller |first2=John |last3=Clark |first3=Richard E. |date=June 2006 |title=Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/1874/16899/1/kirschner_06_minimal_guidance.pdf |journal=Educational Psychologist |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=75–86 |doi=10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 |s2cid=17067829 |issn=0046-1520}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Three benefits of a student-centered learning environment |url=https://blog.isb.cn/three-benefits-of-a-student-centered-learning-environment |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=[[International School of Beijing]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rodriguez |first=Brittany |date=2018-09-06 |title=Active learning vs. passive learning: What's the best way to learn? |url=https://www.classcraft.com/resources/blog/active-learning-vs-passive-learning/ |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=Classcraft}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inquiry-based Learning: Explanation |url=https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/index_sub1.html |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=[[WNET]]}}</ref> <blockquote>A safe approach is to offer three options. The teacher designs two options based on what most students may like to do. The third choice is a blank check – students propose their own product or performance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McCarthy |first=John |title=Student-Centered Learning: It Starts With the Teacher |url=https://www.edutopia.org/blog/student-centered-learning-starts-with-teacher-john-mccarthy |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=[[Edutopia]]}}</ref></blockquote>In this approach, the role of the teacher may change from what has been described as "sage on the stage" to "guide on the side" with one example of this change in practice being that teachers will not tend to answer questions from students directly, but instead will ask questions back to students to prompt further thinking.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hill |first=Jon |title=Who's the better teacher, Sage on the Stage or Guide on the Side? |url=https://blog.isb.cn/whos-the-better-teacher-sage-on-the-stage-or-the-guide-on-the-side |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=[[International School of Beijing]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hilger |first=Laura |date=2019-06-18 |title=Teacher-Centered Versus Learner-Centered Learning |url=https://knowledgeworks.org/resources/learner-centered-learning/ |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=KnowledgeWorks}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bracey Sutton |first=Bonnie |date=1997-07-01 |title=The Teacher as a Guide: Letting Students Navigate Their Own Learning |url=https://www.edutopia.org/teacher-learning-guide |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=[[Edutopia]] |language=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Dan |date=2015-05-22 |title=Guide on the Side(lines) |url=https://www.edutopia.org/discussion/guide-sidelines |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=[[Edutopia]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Alber |first=Rebecca |date=2013-07-23 |title=Tools for Teaching: How to Transform Direct Instruction |url=https://www.edutopia.org/blog/tools-for-teaching-transform-direct-instruction-constructivism-rebecca-alber |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=[[Edutopia]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bogdan |first=Paul |date=2011-03-29 |title=Student-Centered Learning Environments: How and Why |url=https://www.edutopia.org/blog/student-centered-learning-environments-paul-bogdan |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=[[Edutopia]]}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=January 2024}} This change in teaching style has also been described as being a "facilitator of learning" instead of being a "dispenser of knowledge".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED351195 |title=Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools: Kindergarten through Grade Twelve |date=1992 |publisher=[[California State Department of Education]] |isbn=978-0-8011-1033-7 |location=Sacramento |via=[[Education Resources Information Center]]}}</ref>

Minimal guidance is regarded as controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Hee Seung |last2=Anderson |first2=John R. |date=2013-01-03 |title=Student Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do With It? |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143833 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=445–469 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143833 |pmid=22804771 |issn=0066-4308|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and has been described as a caricature that does not exist in practice, and that critics have combined too many different approaches some of which may include more guidance, under the label of minimal guidance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=David M. |last2=Smith |first2=Cameron |last3=Chu |first3=Man-Wai |last4=Friesen |first4=Sharon |date=2018-05-02 |title=Examining the Efficacy of Inquiry-based Approaches to Education |url=https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/ajer/article/view/56439 |journal=Alberta Journal of Educational Research |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.11575/ajer.v64i1.56439 |issn=1923-1857}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hmelo-Silver |first1=Cindy E. |last2=Duncan |first2=Ravit Golan |last3=Chinn |first3=Clark A. |date=2007-04-26 |title=Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00461520701263368 |journal=[[Educational Psychologist (journal)|Educational Psychologist]] |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=99–107 |doi=10.1080/00461520701263368 |issn=0046-1520 |s2cid=1360735|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, there is some evidence that in certain domains, and under certain circumstances, a minimal guidance approach can lead to successful learning if sufficient practice opportunities are built in.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brunstein |first1=Angela |last2=Betts |first2=Shawn |last3=Anderson |first3=John R. |date=November 2009 |title=Practice enables successful learning under minimal guidance. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0016656 |journal=[[Journal of Educational Psychology]] |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=790–802 |doi=10.1037/a0016656 |issn=1939-2176|citeseerx=10.1.1.210.1094 }}</ref>

==== Minimal guidance in education: criticisms and controversies ====
One strand of criticism of the minimal guidance approach originating in [[Cognitive load|cognitive load theory]] is that it does not align with human cognitive architecture making it an inefficient approach to learning for beginner learners in particular.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mayer |first=Richard E. |date=January 2004 |title=Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14736316/ |journal=[[The American Psychologist]] |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=14–19 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.14 |issn=0003-066X |pmid=14736316|citeseerx=10.1.1.372.2476 |s2cid=1129364 }}</ref> In this strand of criticism, minimal guidance approaches are contrasted with fully guided approaches to instruction which better match inherent human cognitive architecture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Richard E. |last2=Kirschner |first2=Paul A. |last3=Sweller |first3=John |date=Spring 2012 |title=The Case for Fully Guided Instruction |url=https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/Clark.pdf |journal=[[American Educator]] |publisher=[[American Federation of Teachers]] |volume=36 |issue=1 |access-date=2022-11-13}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Sweller |first1=J. |last2=Kirschner |first2=P. A. |last3=Clark |first3=R. E. |date=2007-04-26 |title=Why Minimally Guided Teaching Techniques Do Not Work: A Reply to Commentaries |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520701263426 |journal=Educational Psychologist |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=115–121 |doi=10.1080/00461520701263426 |issn=0046-1520 |s2cid=18152560|citeseerx=10.1.1.561.4084 }}</ref> While accepting this general line of argument, counter-arguments for individual approaches such as problem-based learning have highlighted how these are not minimal guidance approaches, and are consistent with human cognitive architecture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Henk G. |last2=Loyens |first2=Sofie M. M. |last3=Van Gog |first3=Tamara |last4=Paas |first4=Fred |date=2007-04-26 |title=Problem-Based Learning is Compatible with Human Cognitive Architecture: Commentary on Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00461520701263350 |journal=Educational Psychologist |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=91–97 |doi=10.1080/00461520701263350 |issn=0046-1520 |s2cid=11864555|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Other strands of criticism suggest that there is little empirical evidence for the effectiveness of learner-centered approaches when compared to more teacher-led approaches, and this is despite extensive encouragement and support from national and international education agencies including [[UNESCO]], [[UNICEF]], and the [[World Bank]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bremner |first1=Nicholas |last2=Sakata |first2=Nozomi |last3=Cameron |first3=Leanne |date=2022-10-01 |title=The outcomes of learner-centred pedagogy: A systematic review |journal=International Journal of Educational Development |volume=94 |pages=102649 |doi=10.1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102649 |issn=0738-0593 |s2cid=251078591 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/130378}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sakata |first1=Nozomi |last2=Bremner |first2=Nicholas |last3=Cameron |first3=Leanne |date=December 2022 |title=A systematic review of the implementation of learner-centred pedagogy in low- and middle-income countries |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rev3.3365 |journal=[[Review of Education]] |volume=10 |issue=3 |doi=10.1002/rev3.3365 |issn=2049-6613 |s2cid=252265258|url-access=subscription |hdl=10871/130832 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sakata |first1=Nozomi |last2=Bremner |first2=Nicholas |last3=Cameron |first3=Leanne |date=2022-11-04 |title=Is learner-centred pedagogy the answer in low- and middle-income countries? |url=https://www.bera.ac.uk/blog/is-learner-centred-pedagogy-the-answer-in-low-and-middle-income-countries |access-date=2022-11-19 |website=[[British Educational Research Association]]}}</ref> Further more specific criticisms include the following: minimal guidance is inefficient compared to explicit instruction due to a lack of [[Worked-example effect|worked examples]], minimal guidance leads to reduced opportunities for student practice, and minimal guidance happens inevitably in [[project-based learning]] as a result of the teacher having to manage too many student projects at one time.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Groshell |first=Zach |date=2022-11-07 |title=PBL or Direct/Explicit Instruction: What Works? |url=https://educationrickshaw.com/2022/11/07/pbl-or-direct-explicit-instruction-what-works/ |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=Education Rickshaw}}</ref>

==== Minimal guidance in education: synthesis and solutions ====
<blockquote>One of the consequences of this reconceptualization is abandoning the rigid explicit instruction versus minimal guidance dichotomy and replacing it with a more flexible approach based on differentiating specific goals of various learner activities in complex learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kalyuga |first1=Slava |last2=Singh |first2=Anne-Marie |date=December 2016 |title=Rethinking the Boundaries of Cognitive Load Theory in Complex Learning |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10648-015-9352-0 |journal=[[Educational Psychology Review]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=831–852 |doi=10.1007/s10648-015-9352-0 |issn=1040-726X |s2cid=254468337|url-access=subscription }}</ref></blockquote>There have been several attempts to move beyond the minimal guidance versus fully guided instruction controversy. These are often developed by introducing the variable of learner expertise and using that to suggest adapting instructional styles depending on the level of expertise of the learner, with more expert learners generally requiring less direct instruction.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bokhove |first1=C. |url=https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-assets/112572_book_item_112572.pdf |title=The Early Career Framework Handbook. |last2=Campbell |first2=R. |publisher=Sage |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-5297-2457-8 |edition=2nd |pages=75–83 |chapter=Adapting teaching.}}</ref> For example, despite providing many of the criticisms of minimal guidance, [[Cognitive load|cognitive load theory]] does also suggest a role for less direct guidance from the teacher as learners become more expert due to the [[expertise reversal effect]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kalyuga |first1=Slava |last2=Ayres |first2=Paul |last3=Chandler |first3=Paul |last4=Sweller |first4=John |date=2003-01-01 |title=The Expertise Reversal Effect |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1141&context=edupapers |journal=Educational Psychologist |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 |doi=10.1207/S15326985EP3801_4 |s2cid=10519654 |issn=0046-1520}}</ref> Other attempts at synthesis include using pedagogies more associated with martial arts instruction that apply explicit instruction as a means of fostering student discovery through repeated practice.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Trninic |first=Dragan |date=February 2018 |title=Instruction, repetition, discovery: restoring the historical educational role of practice |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11251-017-9443-z |journal=Instructional Science |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=133–153 |doi=10.1007/s11251-017-9443-z |issn=0020-4277 |s2cid=255111187 |hdl-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/226164}}</ref> <blockquote>If instead we entertain the possibility that instruction and discovery are not oil and water, that instruction and discovery coexist and can work together, we may find a solution to this impasse in the field. Perhaps our way out of the instructivist-constructivist impasse thus involves not a "middle ground" compromise but an alternative conceptualization of instruction and discovery.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>