Editing Long-term memory (section)

== Divisions ==
The [[human brain|brain]] does not store memories in one unified structure. Instead, different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain. LTM is typically divided up into two major headings: explicit memory and implicit memory.<ref name="Atkinson 1968 89–195"/>

=== Explicit memory ===
Explicit memory (or declarative memory) refers to all memories that are consciously available. These are encoded by the [[hippocampus]], [[entorhinal cortex]], and [[perirhinal cortex]], but consolidated and stored elsewhere. The precise location of storage is unknown, but the temporal cortex has been proposed as a likely candidate. Research by Meulemans and Van der Linden (2003) found that [[amnesia]]c patients with damage to the [[medial temporal lobe]] performed more poorly on explicit learning tests than did healthy controls. However, these same amnesiac patients performed at the same rate as healthy controls on implicit learning tests. This implies that the medial temporal lobe is heavily involved in explicit learning, but not in implicit learning.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Meulemans | first1 = Thierry | last2 = Van der Linden | first2 = Martial | year = 2003 | title = Implicit learning of complex information in amnesia | journal = Brain and Cognition | volume = 52 | issue = 2| pages = 250–257 | doi = 10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00081-2 | pmid = 12821108 | s2cid = 26832551 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Aggleton | first1 = John P | year = 2008 | title = Understanding anterograde amnesia: Disconnections and hidden lesions | journal = The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 61 | issue = 10| pages = 1441–1471 | doi = 10.1080/17470210802215335 | pmid = 18671169 | s2cid = 2082859 }}</ref>

Declarative memory has three major subdivisions:

==== Episodic memory ====
Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events in time, as well as supporting their formation and retrieval. Some examples of episodic memory would be remembering someone's name and what happened at your last interaction with each other.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | last1 = Ranganath | first1 = C. C. | last2 = Michael | first2 = B.X. | last3 = Craig | first3 = J.B. | year = 2005 | title = Working Memory Maintenance Contributes to Long-term Memory Formation: Neural and Behavioral Evidence | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 17 | issue = 7| pages = 994–1010 | doi=10.1162/0898929054475118| pmid = 16102232 | s2cid = 20550241 }}</ref><ref name="Wood2011">{{cite journal | last1 = Wood | first1 = R. | last2 = Baxter | first2 = P. | last3 = Belpaeme | first3 = T. | year = 2011 | title = A review of long term memory in natural and synthetic systems | journal = Adaptive Behavior | volume = 20 | issue = 2| pages = 81–103 | doi = 10.1177/1059712311421219 | s2cid = 770213 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/3439637 }}</ref> Experiments conducted by Spaniol and colleagues indicated that older adults have worse episodic memories than younger adults because episodic memory requires [[Context-dependent memory|context dependent memory]].<ref name="Spaniol, J. 2006">{{cite journal | last1 = Spaniol | first1 = J. | last2 = Madden | first2 = D. J. | last3 = Voss | first3 = A. | year = 2006 | title = A Diffusion Model Analysis of Adult Age Differences in Episodic and Semantic Long–Term Memory Retrieval | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | volume = 32 | issue = 1| pages = 101–117 | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.32.1.101 | pmc = 1894899 |pmid=16478344}}</ref> It is said that episodic memories are not as detailed or accurate as people grow older in age. Some people may begin to have issues with identification or presentation related things as they age. They may not be able to recall things from their memory or have as good of a storage for details as they may have been able to do in the past.<ref>Greene, N. R., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2023). Adult age-related changes in the specificity of episodic memory representations: A review and theoretical framework. Psychology and Aging. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000724
</ref> The Hippocampus is responsible for the functions of episodic memory and research suggests that the use of exercise can be effective in improving brain functions such as the episodic memory. According to Damien Moore and Paul D. Loprinzi, episodic memory can be improved using long-term potentiation, which is when synapses are made to be more durable with exercise. The durability and healthiness of the synapses will in time be able to pick up more connections with neurons and eventually help with episodic memory.<ref>Moore, D., & Loprinzi, P. D. (2021). Exercise influences episodic memory via changes in hippocampal neurocircuitry and long‐term potentiation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 54(8), 6960–6971. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.14728

</ref> Mnemonic training has also been proven to be effective with the sharpening of episodic memory. These trainings include things like the alphabet, music, numerical systems, and other learning systems. Studies by Shuyuan Chen and Zhihui Cai have shown that mnemonic training has shown to be able to improve episodic memory long term.<ref>Chen, S., Cai, Z., Hou, J., Lang, M., Zheng, Z., Zhu, X., & Li, J. (2022). Long-term effects of mnemonic training in healthy older adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 37(8), 954–971. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000712.supp (Supplemental)

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==== Semantic memory ====
Semantic memory refers to knowledge about factual information, such as the meaning of words. Semantic memory is independent information such as information remembered for a test.<ref name="Wood2011" /> In contrast with episodic memory, older adults and younger adults do not show much of a difference in semantic memory, presumably because semantic memory does not depend on context memory.<ref name="Spaniol, J. 2006"/>

==== Autobiographical memory ====
[[Autobiographical memory]] refers to knowledge about events and personal experiences from an individual's own life. Autographical memories are facilitated by aids including verbal, face-evoked, picture-evoked, odour-evoked, and [[music-evoked autobiographical memory]] cues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morgan |first1=Kirstie |last2=Hayne |first2=Harlene |date=November 2007 |title=Nonspecific verbal cues alleviate forgetting by young children |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00622.x |journal=Developmental Science |language=en |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=727–733 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00622.x |pmid=17973788 |issn=1363-755X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Belfi |first1=Amy M. |last2=Bai |first2=Elena |last3=Stroud |first3=Ava |last4=Twohy |first4=Raelynn |last5=Beadle |first5=Janelle N. |date=April 2022 |title=Investigating the role of involuntary retrieval in music-evoked autobiographical memories |journal=Consciousness and Cognition |language=en |volume=100 |pages=103305 |doi=10.1016/j.concog.2022.103305 |pmc=9059816 |pmid=35278896}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chu |first1=S. |last2=Downes |first2=J. J. |date=February 2000 |title=Odour-evoked autobiographical memories: psychological investigations of proustian phenomena |journal=Chemical Senses |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=111–116 |doi=10.1093/chemse/25.1.111 |issn=0379-864X |pmid=10668001|doi-access=free }}</ref> Though similar to episodic memory, it differs in that it contains only those experiences which directly pertain to the individual, from across their lifespan. Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000) argue that this is one component of the self-memory system.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Conway | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Pleydell-Pearce | first2 = C. W. | year = 2000 | title = The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 107 | issue = 2| pages = 261–288 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.107.2.261 | pmid = 10789197 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.621.9717 }}</ref>

=== Implicit memory ===
Implicit memory (procedural memory) refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded, and it is presumed stored by the [[striatum]] and other parts of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia is believed to mediate procedural memory and other brain structures and is largely independent of the hippocampus.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Foerde | first1 = K. | last2 = Poldrack | first2 = R.A. | year = 2009 | title = Procedural learning in humans| volume = 7 | pages = 1083–1091 | doi = 10.1016/B978-008045046-9.00783-X | isbn = 9780080450469 }}</ref> Research by Manelis, Hanson, and Hanson (2011) found that the reactivation of the [[Parietal lobe|parietal]] and [[occipital region]]s was associated with implicit memory.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Manelis | first1 = A. | last2 = Hanson | first2 = C. | last3 = Hanson | first3 = S. J. | year = 2011 | title = Implicit memory for object locations depends on reactivation of encoding-related brain regions | journal = Human Brain Mapping | volume = 32 | issue = 1| pages = 32–50 | doi = 10.1002/hbm.20992 | pmid = 21157878 | pmc=3065329}}</ref> Procedural memory is considered non-declarative memory or unconscious memory which includes [[Priming (psychology)|priming]] and [[non-associative learning]].<ref name="Wood2011" /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Holz | first1 = J. | last2 = Piosczyk | first2 = H. | last3 = Landnann | first3 = N. | last4 = Feige | first4 = B. | last5 = Spiegelhalden | first5 = K. | last6 = Riemann | first6 = D. | last7 = Nissen | first7 = C. | last8 = Voderholzer | first8 = V. | year = 2012 | title =The Timing of Learning before Night-Time Sleep Differentially Affects Declarative and Procedural Long-Term Memory Consolidation in Adolescents | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 7| pages = 1–10| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0040963| bibcode = 2012PLoSO...740963H | pmid=22808287 | pmc=3395672| doi-access = free }}</ref>
The first part of nondeclarative memory (implicit memory) involves priming. Priming occurs when you do something faster after you have already done that activity, such as writing or using a fork.<ref name="Long-term memory systems">{{cite book|last1=Eysenck|first1=Michael W.|title=Fundamentals of Cognition|date=2012|publisher=Psychology Press|location=New York City|isbn=978-1-84872-070-1|page=155|edition=Second}}</ref>
Other categories of memory may also be relevant to the discussion of LTM. For example:

Emotional memory, the memory for events that evoke a particularly strong emotion, is a domain that can involve both declarative and procedural memory processes. Emotional memories are consciously available, but elicit a powerful, unconscious physiological reaction. Research indicates that the [[amygdala]] is extremely active during emotional situations and acts with the hippocampus and [[prefrontal cortex]] in the encoding and consolidation of emotional events.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Buchanan | first1 = Tony W | year = 2007 | title = Retrieval of emotional memories | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 133 | issue = 5| pages = 761–779 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.133.5.761 | pmc = 2265099 | pmid=17723029}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cahill | first1 = L. | last2 = McGaugh | first2 = J. L. | year = 1996 | title = Modulation of memory storage | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 237–242 | doi = 10.1016/S0959-4388(96)80078-X | pmid = 8725966 | s2cid = 8618890 }}</ref>

Working memory is not part of LTM but is important for it to function. Working memory holds and manipulates information for a short period of time, before it is either forgotten or encoded into LTM. Then, in order to remember something from LTM, it must be brought back into working memory. If working memory is overloaded, it can affect the encoding of LTM. If one has a good working memory, they may have a better LTM encoding.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Axmacher | first1 = N. | last2 = Haupt | first2 = S. | last3 = Cohen | first3 = M. X. | last4 = Elger | first4 = C. F. | last5 = Fell | first5 = J. | year = 2010 | title = Electrophysiological signature of working and long-term memory interaction in the human hippocampus | journal = European Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 101–117 | doi = 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.07041.x | pmid = 20092564 | s2cid = 16323508 | doi-access = free }}</ref>