Editing Resource curse (section)

=== Gender inequality ===
Studies suggest countries with abundant natural resources have higher levels of [[gender inequality]] in the areas of wages, labor force participation, violence, and education. Research links gender inequality in the Middle East to resource wealth.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Michael L.|date=2008-02-01|title=Oil, Islam, and Women|journal=American Political Science Review|volume=102|issue=1|pages=107–123|doi=10.1017/S0003055408080040|issn=1537-5943|s2cid=54825180}}</ref> According to Michael Ross:<blockquote>Oil production affects gender relations by reducing the presence of women in the labor force. The failure of women to join the nonagricultural labor force has profound social consequences: it leads to higher fertility rates, less education for girls, and less female influence within the family. It also has far-reaching political consequences: when fewer women work outside the home, they are less likely to exchange information and overcome collective action problems; less likely to mobilize politically, and to lobby for expanded rights; and less likely to gain representation in government. That leaves oil-producing states with atypically strong patriarchal cultures and political institutions.<ref name=":12" /></blockquote>
Ross argues that in oil-rich countries, across the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, and Asia, the need for female labor reduces as export-oriented and female-dominated manufacturing is ousted by Dutch disease effects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ross|first=Michael L.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781400841929|title=The Oil Curse|date=2012-03-04|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.1515/9781400841929|isbn=978-1-4008-4192-9}}</ref> This hypothesis has received further support by the analysis of mining booms in Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kotsadam|first1=Andreas|last2=Tolonen|first2=Anja|date=July 2016|title=African Mining, Gender, and Local Employment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305750X1600005X|journal=World Development|volume=83|pages=325–339|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.01.007|s2cid=153471048}}</ref> For the United States, the evidence is mixed. State-level comparisons suggest that resource wealth leads to lower levels of female labor force participation, lower turnout and fewer seats held by women in legislatures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simmons|first=Joel W.|date=January 2016|title=Resource Wealth and Women's Economic and Political Power in the U.S. States|journal=Comparative Political Studies|volume=49|pages=115–152|doi=10.1177/0010414015597510|number=1|s2cid=155279746}}</ref> On the other hand, a county-level analysis of resource booms in the early 20th century found an overall positive effect of resource wealth on single women's labor force participation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Maurer|first1=Stephan|last2=Potlogea|first2=Andrei|date=January 2021|title=Male-biased Demand Shocks and Women's Labour Force Participation: Evidence from Large Oil Field Discoveries|journal=Economica|volume=88|issue=349|pages=167–188|doi=10.1111/ecca.12341|s2cid=158697381|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Research has also linked resource wealth to greater domestic violence,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Krauser|first1=Mario|last2=Wegenast|first2=Tim|last3=Schneider|first3=Gerald|last4=Hess Elgersma|first4=Ingeborg|date=October 2019|title=A gendered resource curse? Mineral ownership, female unemployment and domestic violence in Sub-Saharan Africa|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42597-019-00019-8|journal=Zeitschrift für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=213–237|doi=10.1007/s42597-019-00019-8|s2cid=211451656|issn=2192-1741}}</ref> and a gender gap in education.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Gylfason, Thorvaldur|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1065189720|title=Inequality and economic growth : do natural resources matter?|date=2002|publisher=Birkbeck College, Dept. of Economics|oclc=1065189720}}</ref><ref>Papyrakis Elissaios, Richard Palmer-Jones, Nitya Rao, Bola Akanji, Godwin Akpokodje, and Bayo Ajala (2009). "Gender and Growth Assessment: Macroeconomic study. Research Report." Report produced for the Department for International Development (DFID) and Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).</ref>