Editing Sea turtle (section)

== Ecology ==

=== Diet ===
[[File:Myrtle the Green Sea Turtle eating lettuce 02.jpg|thumb|238x238px|A sea-turtle eating lettuce.]]
The loggerhead, Kemp's ridley, olive ridley, and hawksbill sea turtles are omnivorous their entire life. Omnivorous turtles may eat a wide variety of plant and animal life including [[Decapoda|decapods]], seagrasses, [[seaweed]], [[sponge]]s, [[Mollusca|mollusks]], [[cnidaria]]ns, [[Echinoderm]]s, worms and fish.<ref name="Burbidge">{{cite book |last = Burbidge|first = Andrew A|title = Threatened animals of Western Australia|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=wuVEAAAAYAAJ|page=110}}|year = 2004|publisher = Department of Conservation and Land Management|isbn = 978-0-7307-5549-4|pages = 110, 114}}</ref><ref name="noaa">{{cite web |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/loggerhead.htm |title=Loggerhead Turtle (''Caretta caretta'') |last1=Bolten |first1=A.B. |year=2003 |work=NOAA Fisheries |access-date=January 31, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514085206/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/loggerhead.htm |archive-date=May 14, 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Barbour, Roger, Ernst, Carl, & Jeffrey Lovich. (1994). Turtles of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.</ref><ref name="ernst50">{{cite book|last1 = Ernst|first1 = C. H.|last2 = Lovich|first2 = J.E.|title = Turtles of the United States and Canada|url = {{google books |plainurl=y |id=nNOQghYEXZMC|page=50}}|edition = 2|publisher = JHU Press|isbn = 978-0-8018-9121-2|year = 2009|access-date = May 27, 2010|page = 50}}</ref> However, some species specialize on certain prey.

The diet of green sea turtles changes with age.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|url = http://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/19395/1/19395_Arthur_et_al_2008.pdf|title = Ontogenetic Changes in Diet and Habitat Use in Green Sea Turtle (''Chelonia mydas'') Life History|last1 = Arthur|first1 = Karen|date = June 30, 2008|journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series |doi = 10.3354/meps07440|access-date = Dec 20, 2015|last2 = Boyle|first2 = Michelle|last3 = Limpus|first3 = Colin|volume=362|pages=303–311|bibcode = 2008MEPS..362..303A|doi-access = free}}</ref> Juveniles are omnivorous, but as they mature they become exclusively herbivorous.<ref name="noaa" /><ref name=":1" /> This diet shift has an effect on the green sea turtle's morphology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide|title=Wildlife Guide|website=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nishizawa | first1 = H. | last2 = Asahara | first2 = M. | last3 = Kamezaki | first3 = N. | last4 = Arai | first4 = N. | year = 2010 | title = Differences in the skull morphology between juvenile and adult green turtles: implications for the ontogenetic diet shift | journal = Current Herpetology | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 97–101 | doi=10.3105/018.029.0205| s2cid = 86312033}}</ref> Green sea turtles have a serrated jaw that is used to eat sea grass and algae.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/sea-turtles/diet-and-eating-habits|title=Diet & Eating Habits|website=seaworld.org|access-date=2016-04-27}}</ref>

Leatherback sea turtles feed almost exclusively on jellyfish and help control jellyfish populations.<ref name="WWW">{{cite web | title =WWF – Leatherback turtle | work=Marine Turtles | publisher=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) | date =16 February 2007 | url =http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/about_species/species_factsheets/marine_turtles/leatherback_turtle/index.cfm
  | access-date =9 September 2007}}</ref><ref name="CCC">{{cite web|title=Species Fact Sheet: Leatherback Sea Turtle |work=Caribbean Conservation Corporation & Sea Turtle Survival League |publisher=Caribbean Conservation Corporation |date=29 December 2005 |url=http://www.cccturtle.org/leatherback.htm |access-date=6 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928221346/http://www.cccturtle.org/leatherback.htm |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref>

Hawksbill sea turtles principally eat sponges, which constitute 70–95{{Thinsp}}% of their diets in the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Spongivory in Hawksbill Turtles: A Diet of Glass |last=Meylan |first=Anne |date=1988-01-22 |journal=Science |jstor=1700236 |pmid = 17836872 |volume=239 |issue=4838 |pages=393–395 |doi=10.1126/science.239.4838.393|bibcode=1988Sci...239..393M |s2cid=22971831}}</ref> 

Loggerhead turtles are regarded as flexible and predators of slow-moving animals. They eat a broad variety of things, including terrestrial insects like ants, planthoppers, and beetles, as well as sea animals and plants. This species' primary diet consists of gelatinous creatures (medusae and ctenophores) and crustaceans, particularly crabs. Sargassum, barnacles, [[Gastropoda|gastropods]], anemones, salps, and pelagic coelenterates have also been found in numerous studies to be loggerhead turtles' primary food sources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Jihee |last2=Kim |first2=Il-Hun |last3=Kim |first3=Min-Seop |last4=Lee |first4=Hae Rim |last5=Kim |first5=Young Jun |last6=Park |first6=Sangkyu |last7=Yang |first7=Dongwoo |date=2021-11-21 |title=Occurrence and diet analysis of sea turtles in Korean shore |journal=Journal of Ecology and Environment |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=23 |doi=10.1186/s41610-021-00206-w |doi-access=free |issn=2288-1220}}</ref>

=== Larynx mechanisms ===
There was little information regarding the sea turtle's larynx. Sea turtles, like other turtle species, lack an epiglottis to cover the larynx entrance. Key findings from an experiment reveal the following in regards to the larynx morphology: a close apposition between the linguolaryngeal cleft's smooth mucosal walls and the laryngeal folds, a dorsal part of the glottis, the glottal mucosa attached to the arytenoid cartilage, and the way the hyoid sling is arranged and the relationship between the compressor laryngis muscle and cricoid cartilage. The glottal opening and closing mechanisms have been examined. During the opening stage, two abductor artytenoideae muscles swing arytenoid cartilages and the glottis walls. As a result, the glottis profile is transformed from a slit to a triangle. In the closing stage, the tongue is drawn posteriorly due to the close apposition of the glottis walls and linguolaryngeal cleft walls and hyoglossal sling contractions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fraher |first1=J |last2=Davenport |first2=J |last3=Fitzgerald |first3=E |last4=Mclaughlin |first4=P |last5=Doyle |first5=T |last6=Harman |first6=L |last7=Cuffe |first7=T |title=Opening and closing mechanisms of the leatherback sea turtle larynx: a crucial role for the tongue |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |date=2010 |volume=213 |issue=24 |pages=4137–4145 |doi=10.1242/jeb.042218|pmid=21112993 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2010JExpB.213.4137F }}</ref>

=== Relationship with humans ===

Sea turtles are caught worldwide, although it is illegal to hunt most species in many countries.<ref name="CITES">{{cite web|author=CITES |author-link=CITES |title=Appendices |publisher=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna |date=14 June 2006 |url=http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |format=SHTML |access-date=5 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203100154/http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |archive-date=3 February 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="CITESEI">{{cite web|author=UNEP-WCMC |author-link=UNEP-WCMC |title=Eretmochelys imbricata A-301.003.003.001 |work=UNEP-WCMC Species Database: CITES-Listed Species |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme – World Conservation Monitoring Centre |url=http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/CITES/Taxonomy/tax-species-result.cfm?displaylanguage=eng&Genus=Eretmochelys&Species=imbricata&source=animals&Country=&tabname=all |access-date=5 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132215/http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/CITES/Taxonomy/tax-species-result.cfm?displaylanguage=eng&Genus=Eretmochelys&Species=imbricata&source=animals&Country=&tabname=all |archive-date=September 29, 2007}}</ref> A great deal of intentional sea turtle harvests worldwide are for food. Many parts of the world have long considered sea turtles to be fine dining. In England during the 1700s, sea turtles were consumed as a delicacy to near extinction, often as [[turtle soup]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Clarkson |first=Janet |title=Soup : a global history |date=2010 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-86189-774-9 |location=London |pages=115–118 |oclc=642290114 }}</ref> [[Ancient China|Ancient Chinese]] texts dating to the 5th century B.C.E. describe sea turtles as exotic delicacies.<ref name="EatingTurtlesChina">{{cite journal | last=Schafer | first=Edward H. | author-link=Edward H. Schafer | title=Eating Turtles in Ancient China | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=82 | issue=1 | pages=73–74 | year=1962 | doi=10.2307/595986| jstor=595986}}</ref> Many coastal communities around the world depend on sea turtles as a source of protein, often harvesting several sea turtles at once and keeping them alive on their backs until needed. Coastal peoples gather sea turtle eggs for consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seaturtle.org/mtn/archives/mtn68/mtn68p8.shtml |title=MTN 68:8-13 Status of Nesting Populations of Sea Turtles in Thailand and Their Conservation |publisher=Seaturtle.org}}</ref>

[[File:Manner in which the natives of the East Coast Stirke Turtle.jpg|thumb|"Manner in which Natives of the East Coast strike turtle". Near [[Cooktown]], Australia. From [[Phillip Parker King]]'s Survey. 1818.]]

To a much lesser extent, some species are targeted for their shells. [[Tortoiseshell]], a traditional decorative ornamental material used in Japan and China, comes from the [[carapace]] [[scutes]] of the hawksbill sea turtle.<ref name="FisheriesModel">{{cite journal | last=Heppel | first=Selina S. | author-link=Selina Heppel |author2=Larry B. Crowder | title=Analysis of a Fisheries Model for Harvest of Hawksbill Sea Turtles (''Eretmochelys imbricata'') | journal=Conservation Biology | volume=10 | issue=3 | pages=874–880 | doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10030874.x |date=June 1996 | jstor=2387111| bibcode=1996ConBi..10..874H }}</ref><ref name="CNNJapan">{{cite news|last=Strieker |first=Gary |author-link=Gark Strieker |title=Tortoiseshell ban threatens Japanese tradition |work=CNN.com/sci-tech |publisher=Cable News Network |date=10 April 2001 |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/science/04/10/japan.turtles/ |access-date=2 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311014928/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/science/04/10/japan.turtles/ |archive-date=11 March 2007}}</ref> [[Ancient Greek]]s and [[ancient Roman]]s processed sea turtle scutes (primarily from the hawksbill sea turtle) for various articles and ornaments used by their elites, such as combs and brushes.<ref name="Periplus">{{cite journal | last=Casson | first=Lionel | author-link=Lionel Casson | title=Periplus Maris Erythraei: Notes on the Text | journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies | volume=102 | pages=204–206 | doi=10.2307/631139| year=1982 | jstor=631139| s2cid=161133205 }}</ref> The skin of the flippers is prized for use as shoes and assorted leather goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Steiner |first1=Todd |last2=Heitchue |first2=Mark |last3=Ghriskey |first3=Henry W. |date=1994 |title=Banned Sea Turtle Products Still Exported from Mexico |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43882966 |journal=Earth Island Journal |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=9 |jstor=43882966 |issn=1041-0406}}</ref> In various West African countries, [[Use of sea turtles in West African traditional medicine|sea turtles are harvested for traditional medicinal use]].{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] worshipped the sea and its animals. They often depicted sea turtles in their art.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref> [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s poem "[[Fastitocalon (poem)|Fastitocalon]]" echoes a second-century Latin tale in the ''[[Physiologus]]'' of the ''Aspidochelone'' ("round-shielded turtle"); it is so large that sailors mistakenly land and light a fire on its back, and are drowned when it dives.<ref name="Letter 255">[[J. R. R. Tolkien]], ''The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien'', #255 to Mrs Eileen Elgar, 5 March 1964; [[Humphrey Carpenter]] and [[Christopher Tolkien]], eds. (Allen & Unwin, 1981; {{ISBN|0-261-10265-6}})</ref><ref>[[Christina Scull]] & [[Wayne G. Hammond]] (2014), editors, ''[[The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]]'', Harper Collins, p. 224; {{ISBN|978-0007557271}}</ref>
 
Beach towns, such as [[Tortuguero, Costa Rica]], have transitioned from a tourism industry that made profits from selling sea turtle meat and shells to an ecotourism-based economy. Tortuguero is considered to be the founding location of sea turtle conservation. In the 1960s the cultural demand for sea turtle meat, shells, and eggs was quickly killing the once-abundant sea turtle populations that nested on the beach. The Caribbean Conservation Corporation began working with villagers to promote ecotourism as a permanent substitute to sea turtle hunting. Sea turtle nesting grounds became sustainable. Tourists love to come and visit the nesting grounds, although it causes a lot of stress to the sea turtles because all of the eggs can get damaged or harmed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seaturtle-world.com/sea-turtles-and-humans/ |title=Sea Turtles and Humans – Sea Turtle Facts and Information |website=www.seaturtle-world.com |date=4 January 2014 |access-date=2017-04-24}}</ref> Since the creation of a sea turtle ecotourism-based economy, Tortugero annually houses thousands of tourists who visit the protected {{convert|22|mi|km|order=flip|adj=on}} beach that hosts sea turtle walks and nesting grounds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tortugueroinfo.com/usa/sea_turtles_tortuguero.htm |title=Sea turtles in Tortuguero Costa Rica, a turtle haven ! |work=Tortuguero Costa Rica Tours }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/25/travel/turtle-watch-in-costa-rica.html?scp=3&sq=costa%20rica,%20sea%20turtle&st=cse | work=The New York Times | title=Turtle Watch in Costa Rica | first=John R. | last=Alden | date=25 October 1998}}</ref> Walks to observe the nesting sea turtles require a certified guide and this controls and minimizes disturbance of the beaches. It also gives the locals a financial interest in conservation and the guides now defend the sea turtles from threats such as poaching; efforts in Costa Rica's Pacific Coast are facilitated by a nonprofit organization, Sea Turtles Forever.<ref name="Eugene">{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=20060326&id=PWBWAAAAIBAJ&pg=4551,6016259 |newspaper=[[Eugene Register-Guard]] |date=March 26, 2005 |title=Seaside Couple Protect Costa Rican Turtles |access-date=November 26, 2018}}</ref>  Thousands of people are involved in sea turtle walks, and substantial revenues accrue from the fees paid for the privilege.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://conserveturtles.org/wp-content/uploads/Tortuguero%20Green%20Turtle%20Report%201999.pdf |title=Report on the 1999 Green Turtle Program at Tortugero, Costa Rica |publisher=[[Caribbean Conservation Corporation]] and the Ministry of Environment and Energy of Costa Rica |date=22 February 2000 |first1=Sebastian |last1=Troëng |first2=Jeff |last2=Mangel |first3=Sheleyla |last3=Kélez |first4=Andy |display-authors=etal |last4=Meyers |pages=11, 21–23, 29, 32 |access-date=30 November 2018 |archive-date=27 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127193718/https://conserveturtles.org/wp-content/uploads/Tortuguero%20Green%20Turtle%20Report%201999.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In other parts of the world where sea turtle breeding sites are threatened by human activity, volunteers often patrol beaches as a part of conservation activities, which may include relocating sea turtle eggs to hatcheries, or assisting hatching sea turtles in reaching the ocean.<ref name=NIE>{{cite web|url=http://newindianexpress.com/education/student/article557787.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810045119/http://newindianexpress.com/education/student/article557787.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 10, 2013|title=Join the turtle walk|work=[[New Indian Express]]|publisher=Newindianexpress.com|access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref> Locations in which such efforts exist include the east coast of India,<ref name=H>{{citation |url=https://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/05/19/stories/2002051900230800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030516140742/http://thehindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/05/19/stories/2002051900230800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 May 2003 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |title=The ebb and flow of life |date=19 May 2002 |first1=S. Theodore |last1=Baskaran}}</ref> [[São Tomé and Príncipe]],<ref name=STP>{{citation |title=On Turtle Patrol: the Bradt travel guide. |work=São Tomé and Príncipe |first=Kathleen |last=Becker  |location=Chalfont St. Peter |publisher=[[Bradt Travel Guides]]|year=2014 |isbn=9781841624860}}</ref> [[Sham Wan (Lamma Island)|Sham Wan]] in Hong Kong,<ref name=SCMP>{{citation |title=Actors and activists fight for endangered green sea turtles' nesting site in Hong Kong |newspaper=[[South China Morning Post]]|date=26 June 2018 |url=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/article/2152477/actors-and-activists-fight-endangered-green-sea-turtles-nesting-site-hong}}</ref> and the coast of [[Florida]].<ref name=TITS>{{citation |title=Tracks in the Sand: Sea Turtles and Their Protectors |first1=Frank |last1=Gromling |first2=Mike |last2=Cavaliere |publisher=[[Ocean Publishing]]  |location=Flagler Beach, Florida |year=2010 |isbn=9780982694008}}</ref>

=== Importance to ecosystems ===
[[Image:Sea turtles on beach in hawaii.jpg|thumb|left|Sea turtles on a beach in [[Hawaii]]]]

Sea turtles play key roles in two habitat types: oceans and beaches/dunes.

In the oceans, sea turtles, especially green sea turtles, are among the very few creatures (manatees are another) that eat [[sea grass]]. Sea grass needs to be constantly cut short to help it grow across the sea floor. Sea turtle grazing helps maintain the health of the sea grass beds. Sea grass beds provide breeding and developmental grounds for numerous marine animals. Without them, many marine species humans harvest would be lost, as would the lower levels of the food chain. The reactions could result in many more marine species eventually becoming endangered or extinct.<ref name="cccturtle.org">[http://cccturtle.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=whycareaboutseaturtles Why Care About Sea Turtles?], Sea Turtle Conservancy.</ref>

Sea turtles use beaches and [[sand dunes]] as to lay their eggs. Such coastal environments are nutrient-poor and depend on vegetation to protect against erosion. Eggs, hatched or unhatched, and hatchlings that fail to make it into the ocean are nutrient sources for dune vegetation and therefore protecting these nesting habitats for sea turtles, forming a [[positive feedback loop]].<ref name="cccturtle.org" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hannan |first1=Laura B. |last2=Roth |first2=James D. |last3=Ehrhart |first3=Llewellyn M. |last4=Weishampel |first4=John F. |title=Dune Vegetation Fertilization by Nesting Sea Turtles |journal=Ecology |date=2007 |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=1053–1058 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/27651194 |access-date=October 20, 2020 |publisher=[[Ecological Society of America]]|doi=10.1890/06-0629 |jstor=27651194 |pmid=17536720 |bibcode=2007Ecol...88.1053H |s2cid=7194642 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Sea turtles also maintain a symbiotic relationship with [[yellow tang]], in which the fish will eat algae growing on the shell of a sea turtle.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://akepa.hpa.edu/~mrice/turtle/Articles%20of%20interest/symposiumpapertcs.pdf |title=CLEANING SYMBIOSIS AND DIEL BEHAVIOR OF GREEN TURTLES (''CHELONIA MYDAS'') AT PUAKO, HAWAII |last1=Catellacci |first1=Alima |first2=Alexandra |last2=Wooddell |first3=Marc R. |last3=Rice |work=Sea Turtle Research Program |publisher=Hawaii Preparatory Academy |location=USA |access-date=2019-03-23 |archive-date=2015-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007041618/http://akepa.hpa.edu/~mrice/turtle/Articles%20of%20interest/symposiumpapertcs.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Conservation status and threats ===
{{Main|Threats to sea turtles}}
[[File:Sea turtle entangled in a ghost net.jpg|thumb|upright|A sea turtle entangled in a fishing net]]

The [[IUCN Red List of Endangered Species|IUCN Red List]] classifies three species of sea turtle as either "endangered" or "critically endangered".<ref name=":13">{{cite web|title = The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/|website = www.iucnredlist.org|access-date = 2015-12-24}}</ref> An additional three species are classified as "vulnerable".<ref name=":13" /> The flatback sea turtle is considered as "data deficient", meaning that its conservation status is unclear due to lack of data.<ref name=":13" /> All species of sea turtle are listed in [[CITES]] Appendix I, restricting international trade of sea turtles and sea turtle products.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{cite web|title = Checklist of CITES species|url = http://checklist.cites.org|website = checklist.cites.org|access-date = 2015-12-24}}</ref> However, the usefulness of global assessments for sea turtles has been questioned,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seminoff|first1=Jeffrey A.|last2=Shanker|first2=Kartik|title=Marine turtles and IUCN Red Listing: A review of the process, the pitfalls, and novel assessment approaches|journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology|volume=356|issue=1–2|pages=52–68|doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2007.12.007|year=2008|bibcode=2008JEMBE.356...52S }}</ref> particularly due to the presence of distinct genetic stocks and spatially separated regional management units (RMUs).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallace|first1=Bryan P.|last2=DiMatteo|first2=Andrew D.|last3=Hurley|first3=Brendan J.|last4=Finkbeiner|first4=Elena M.|last5=Bolten|first5=Alan B.|last6=Chaloupka|first6=Milani Y.|last7=Hutchinson|first7=Brian J.|last8=Abreu-Grobois|first8=F. Alberto|last9=Amorocho|first9=Diego|date=2010-12-17|title=Regional Management Units for Marine Turtles: A Novel Framework for Prioritizing Conservation and Research across Multiple Scales|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=5|issue=12|pages=e15465|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0015465|pmid=21253007|pmc=3003737|issn=1932-6203|bibcode=2010PLoSO...515465W|doi-access=free}}</ref> Each RMU is subject to a unique set of threats that generally cross jurisdictional boundaries, resulting in some sub-populations of the same species' showing recovery while others continue to decline. This has triggered the IUCN to conduct threat assessments at the sub-population level for some species recently. These new assessments have highlighted an unexpected mismatch between where conservation relevant science has been conducted on sea turtles, and where there is the greatest need for conservation.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last1=Pearson|first1=Ryan M.|last2=van de Merwe|first2=Jason P.|last3=Limpus|first3=Colin J.|last4=Connolly|first4=Rod M.|date=2017|title=Realignment of sea turtle isotope studies needed to match conservation priorities|journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series|language=en|volume=583|pages=259–271|doi=10.3354/meps12353|issn=0171-8630|bibcode=2017MEPS..583..259P| hdl=10072/373398 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> For example, as at August 2017, about 69% of studies using stable isotope analysis to understand the foraging distribution of sea turtles have been conducted in RMUs listed as "least concern" by the IUCN.<ref name=":14" />
Additionally, all populations of sea turtles that occur in United States waters are listed as threatened or endangered by the [[Endangered Species Act|US Endangered Species Act (ESA)]].<ref name="United States Fish & Wildlife Service">{{cite web|publisher=United States Fish & Wildlife Service|title=Endangered Species Program|url=http://www.fws.gov/endangered/|access-date=April 12, 2012}}</ref> The US listing status of the loggerhead sea turtle is under review as of 2012.<ref name="United States Fish & Wildlife Service" />
{| class="wikitable"
!
!'''IUCN Red List'''
!'''United States ESA<sup>*</sup>'''
|-
|[[Green sea turtle|'''Green''']]
|Endangered<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Seminoff, J.A. |collaboration=Southwest Fisheries Science Center, U.S. |date=2004 |title=''Chelonia mydas'' |volume=2004 |page=e.T4615A11037468 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T4615A11037468.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|Endangered: populations in Florida and Pacific coast of Mexico populations
Threatened: all other populations<ref>{{cite web|title = Green Turtle (''Chelonia mydas'') :: NOAA Fisheries|url = http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/green.html|website = www.nmfs.noaa.gov|access-date = 2015-12-24|language = en-us|first = NOAA|last = Fisheries}}</ref>
|-
|[[Loggerhead sea turtle|'''Loggerhead''']]
|Vulnerable<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Casale, P. |author2=Tucker, A.D. |date=2017 |title=''Caretta caretta'' |volume=2017 |page=e.T3897A119333622 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T3897A119333622.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|Endangered: NE Atlantic, Mediterranean, N Indian, N Pacific, S Pacific populations
Threatened: NW Atlantic, S Atlantic, SE Indo-Pacific, SW Indian populations<ref>{{cite web|title = Loggerhead Turtle (''Caretta caretta'') :: NOAA Fisheries|url = http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/loggerhead.htm|website = www.nmfs.noaa.gov|access-date = 2015-12-24|language = en-us|first = NOAA|last = Fisheries}}</ref>
|-
|[[Kemp's ridley sea turtle|'''Kemp's ridley''']]
|Critically endangered<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Wibbels, T. |author2=Bevan, E. |date=2019 |title=''Lepidochelys kempii'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T11533A155057916 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T11533A155057916.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|Endangered: all populations<ref>{{cite web|title = Kemp's Ridley Turtle (''Lepidochelys kempii'') :: NOAA Fisheries|url = http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/kempsridley.html|website = www.nmfs.noaa.gov|access-date = 2015-12-24|language = en-us|first = NOAA|last = Fisheries}}</ref>
|-
|[[Olive ridley sea turtle|'''Olive ridley''']]
|Vulnerable<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Abreu-Grobois, A. |author2=Plotkin, P. |collaboration=IUCN SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group |date=2008 |title=''Lepidochelys olivacea'' |volume=2008 |page=e.T11534A3292503 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T11534A3292503.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|Endangered: Pacific Coast of Mexico population
Threatened: all other populations<ref>{{cite web|title = Olive Ridley Turtle (''Lepidochelys olivacea'') :: NOAA Fisheries|url = http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/oliveridley.html|website = www.nmfs.noaa.gov|access-date = 2015-12-24|language = en-us|first = NOAA|last = Fisheries}}</ref>
|-
|[[Hawksbill sea turtle|'''Hawksbill''']]
|Critically endangered<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Mortimer, J.A. |author2=Donnelly, M. |collaboration=IUCN SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group |date=2008 |title=''Eretmochelys imbricata'' |volume=2008 |page=e.T8005A12881238 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T8005A12881238.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|Endangered: all populations<ref>{{cite web|title = Hawksbill Turtle (''Eretmochelys imbricata'') :: NOAA Fisheries|url = http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/hawksbill.htm|website = www.nmfs.noaa.gov|access-date = 2015-12-24|language = en-us|first = NOAA|last = Fisheries}}</ref>
|-
|[[Flatback turtle|'''Flatback''']]
|Data deficient<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Red List Standards. |author2=Petitions Subcommittee |date=1996 |title=''Natator depressus'' |volume=1996 |page=e.T14363A4435952 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T14363A4435952.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|N/A
|-
|[[Leatherback sea turtle|'''Leatherback''']]
|Vulnerable<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Wallace, B.P. |author2=Tiwari, M. |author3=Girondot, M. |date=2013 |title=''Dermochelys coriacea'' |volume=2013 |page=e.T6494A43526147 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T6494A43526147.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|Endangered: all populations<ref>{{cite web|title = Leatherback Turtle (''Dermochelys coriacea'') :: NOAA Fisheries|url = http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/leatherback.html|website = www.nmfs.noaa.gov|access-date = 2015-12-24|language = en-us|first = NOAA|last = Fisheries}}</ref>
|}
<sup>*</sup>The ESA manages sea turtles by population and not by species.
[[File:Protected turtle nesting area II.jpg|thumb|Protected nesting area for turtles in Miami, Florida ]]
==== Management ====
In the Caribbean, researchers are having some success in assisting a comeback.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Clarren | first = Rebecca | title = Night Life  | journal = Nature Conservancy | volume = 58 | issue = 4 | pages = 32–43 | year = 2008}}</ref> In September 2007, [[Corpus Christi, Texas]], wildlife officials found 128 Kemp's ridley sea turtle nests on Texas beaches, a record number, including 81 on North [[Padre Island]] ([[Padre Island National Seashore]]) and four on [[Mustang Island]]. Wildlife officials released 10,594 Kemp's ridley sea turtle hatchlings along the Texas coast in recent years.

The [[Philippines]] has had several initiatives dealing with the issue of sea turtle conservation. In 2007, the province of [[Batangas]] declared the catching and eating of sea turtles (locally referred to as [[Pawikan]]s) illegal. However, the law seems to have had little effect as sea turtle eggs are still in demand in [[Batangas#Etymology|Batangan]] markets. In September 2007, several Chinese [[Poaching|poachers]] were apprehended off the [[Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi|Turtle Islands]] in the country's southernmost province of [[Tawi-Tawi]]. The poachers had collected more than a hundred sea turtles, along with 10,000 sea turtle eggs.<ref name="PhilStar20070912">{{cite news|last=Adraneda |first=Katherine |title=WWF urges RP to pursue case vs turtle poachers |work=Headlines |publisher=The Philippine Star |date=12 September 2007 |url=http://www.philstar.com/index.php?Headlines&p=49&type=2&sec=24&aid=20070911144 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216153133/http://www.philstar.com/index.php?Headlines&p=49&type=2&sec=24&aid=20070911144 |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 February 2013 |access-date=12 September 2007 }}</ref>

Evaluating the progress of conservation programs is difficult, because many sea turtle populations have not been assessed adequately.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Bjorndal |first1= Karen |last2= Bowen |first2= Brian |year= 2011 |title= Better science needed for restoration in the Gulf of Mexico |journal= Science |volume= 331 |pages= 537–538 |doi= 10.1126/science.1199935 |last3= Chaloupka |first3= M. |last4= Crowder |first4= L. B. |last5= Heppell |first5= S. S. |last6= Jones |first6= C. M. |last7= Lutcavage |first7= M. E. |last8= Policansky |first8= D. |last9= Solow |first9= A. R. |last10= Witherington |first10= B. E. |issue= 6017 |pmid= 21292956|display-authors= 8 |bibcode= 2011Sci...331..537B |s2cid= 33994573 }}</ref> Most information on sea turtle populations comes from counting nests on beaches, but this does not provide an accurate picture of the whole sea turtle population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Witherington |first1=B.E. |last2=Kubilis |first2=Anne |last3=Brost |first3=Beth |last4=Meylan |first4=Anne |year=2009 |title=Decreasing annual nest counts in a globally important loggerhead sea turtle population |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=30–54 |doi=10.1890/08-0434.1 |pmid=19323172|bibcode=2009EcoAp..19...30W }}</ref> A 2010 United States National Research Council report concluded that more detailed information on sea turtles' life cycles, such as birth rates and mortality, is needed.<ref>{{Cite web | last1=The National Research Council | title=Assessment of Sea Turtle Status and Trends: Integrating Demography and Abundance | publisher=National Academies Press | place=Washington, DC | year=2010 | url=http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Assessment-Turtle-Status/12889}}</ref>

Nest relocation may not be a useful conservation technique for sea turtles. In one study on the freshwater Arrau turtle (''[[Podocnemis expansa]]'') researchers examined the effects of nest relocation.<ref name=":10" /> They discovered that clutches of this freshwater turtle that were transplanted to a new location had higher mortality rates and more morphological abnormalities compared to non-transplanted clutches.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal | last1 = Jaffé | first1 = R. | last2 = Peñaloza | first2 = C. | last3 = Barreto | first3 = G. R. | year = 2008 | title = Monitoring an endangered freshwater turtle management program: effects of nest relocation on growth and locomotive performance of the giant South American turtle (''Podocnemis expansa'', Podocnemididae) | journal = Chelonian Conservation and Biology | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 213–222 | doi=10.2744/CCB-0696.1| s2cid = 86007443 }}</ref> However, in a study of loggerhead sea turtles (''[[Loggerhead sea turtle|Caretta caretta]]''), Dellert et al. found that relocating nests at risk of inundation increased the success of eggs and hatchlings and decreased the risk of inundation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dellert|first1=Lauren J.|last2=O'Neil|first2=Danielle|last3=Cassill|first3=Deby L.|date=2014-06-01|title=Effects of Beach Renourishment and Clutch Relocation on the Success of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) Eggs and Hatchlings|journal=Journal of Herpetology|volume=48|issue=2|pages=186–187|doi=10.1670/12-135|issn=0022-1511|hdl=10806/11541|s2cid=85697630}}</ref>

==== Predators and disease ====
Most sea turtle mortality happens early in life. Sea turtles usually lay around 100 eggs at a time, but on average only one of the eggs from the nest will survive to adulthood.<ref>Wright, Sara. [http://www.blufftontoday.com/news/2010-08-06/hilton-head-island-sees-record-sea-turtle-nesting-season "Hilton Head Island sees record sea turtle nesting season."] Bluffton Today (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.</ref> Raccoons, foxes, and seabirds may raid nests or hatchlings may be eaten within minutes of hatching as they make their initial run for the ocean.<ref name=":11">[http://www.seaturtlefoundation.org/threats/natural/ "Natural."] Sea Turtle Foundation. Sea Turtle Foundation, 2010. Web. 8 Dec 2010.</ref> Once in the water, they are susceptible to seabirds, large fish and even other sea turtles.

Adult sea turtles have few predators. Large aquatic carnivores such as sharks and crocodiles are their biggest threats; however, reports of terrestrial predators attacking nesting females are not uncommon. [[Jaguar]]s have been reported to smash into sea turtle shells with their paws, and scoop out the flesh.<ref>Baker, Natural History and Behavior, pp. 8–16</ref>

[[Turtle fibropapillomatosis|Fibropapillomatosis]] disease causes tumors in sea turtles.

While many of the things that endanger sea turtles are natural predators,<ref name=":11"/> increasingly many threats to the sea turtle species have arrived with the ever-growing presence of humans.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heithaus|first1=Michael R.|last2=Wirsing|first2=Aaron J.|last3=Thomson|first3=Jordan A.|last4=Burkholder|first4=Derek A. |year=2008 |title=A review of lethal and non-lethal effects of predators on adult marine turtles |journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology |volume=356 |issue=1–2 |pages=43–51 |doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2007.12.013|bibcode=2008JEMBE.356...43H }}</ref>

==== Bycatch ====
[[File:logger ted 01.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A loggerhead sea turtle escapes a circular fisherman's net via a TED.|A loggerhead sea turtle exits from a [[fishing net]] through a [[turtle excluder device]] (TED)]]One of the most significant and contemporary threats to sea turtles comes from [[bycatch]] due to imprecise fishing methods. [[Long-lining]] has been identified as a major cause of accidental sea turtle deaths.<ref name="RoyalGazette">{{cite news | last =Moniz | first =Jesse | title =Turtle conservation: It's now very much a political issue | work =News | publisher =The Royal Gazette Ltd. | date =3 February 2007 | url =http://www.royalgazette.com/siftology.royalgazette/Article/article.jsp?sectionId=80&articleId=7d5908e3003001d }}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="NationalGeographic">{{cite news | last=Scales|first = Helen | title =Glow Sticks May Lure Sea Turtles to Death | work =News | publisher =National Geographic News | date =27 April 2007 | url =http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/04/070427-glow-sticks.html | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070430043452/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/04/070427-glow-sticks.html | url-status =dead | archive-date =April 30, 2007 }}</ref> There is also a black-market demand for tortoiseshell for both decoration and supposed health benefits.<ref name="Japan">{{cite web |author=NYSDEC | title =Atlantic Hawksbill Sea Turtle Fact Sheet | publisher =Endangered Species Unit | url =http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/endspec/athafs.html | access-date = 7 February 2007}}</ref>

Sea turtles must surface to breathe. Caught in a fisherman's net, they are unable to surface and thus drown. In early 2007, almost a thousand sea turtles were killed inadvertently in the [[Bay of Bengal]] over the course of a few months after netting.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Fishermen blamed for turtle deaths in Bay of Bengal |work=Science News |publisher=Reuters |date=5 February 2007 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-turtles-idUSDEL1456220070205 |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115114552/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-turtles-idUSDEL1456220070205 |archive-date=15 November 2016}}</ref>

However, some relatively inexpensive changes to fishing techniques, such as slightly larger hooks and traps from which sea turtles can escape, can dramatically cut the mortality rate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.seaturtle.org/mtn/archives/mtn113/mtn113p13.shtml|title=MTN 113:13-14 Longline Fishery Panel Discussion at the 26th Annual Sea Turtle Symposium: Cooperative Approaches to Implement Sea Turtle Bycatch Solutions in Longline Fisheries|website=www.seaturtle.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last=O'Kelly-Lynch | first=Ruth | title=Govt: Long-line fishing won't hurt birds | url=http://www.royalgazette.com/siftology.royalgazette/Article/article.jsp?sectionId=60&articleId=7d72411300300c5 }}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Turtle excluder device]]s (TEDs) have reduced sea turtle bycatch in shrimp nets by 97 percent.
[[File:Sea turtle nest sign (Boca raton, FL).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Legal notice posted by a sea turtle nest at [[Boca Raton]], [[Florida]]]]

==== Beach development ====
Light pollution from beach development is a threat to baby sea turtles; the glow from city sources can cause them to head into traffic instead of the ocean.<ref name=panama>{{cite news|url=https://www.newsherald.com/news/20181007/disorientation-huge-problem-for-panama-city-beach-sea-turtle-hatchlings|title=Disorientation a huge problem for Panama City Beach sea turtle hatchlings|last=Landeck|first=Katie|date=7 October 2018|journal=[[Panama City News Herald]]}}</ref><ref name=hijos>{{cite episode|title=The Milky Way|series=Hijos de las Estrellas|season=1|number=8|year=2014|network=[[Netflix]]|minutes=37, 43}}</ref> There has been some movement to protect these areas. On the east coast of Florida, parts of the beach known to harbor sea turtle nests are protected by fences.<ref name=hijos/> Conservationists have monitored hatchings, relocating lost baby sea turtles to the beach.<ref name=panama/>

Hatchlings find their way to the ocean by instinctively crawling towards the brightest horizon, which has traditionally been the ocean because of the reflection of light from the moon and the stars on the water's surface, but get disoriented due to the artificial lights along the coastline.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Witherington|first=Blair E|date=|title=Understanding, Assessing, and Resolving Light Pollution Problems on Sea Turtle Nesting Beaches|url=https://www.fws.gov/caribbean/es/PDF/Library%20Items/LightingManual-Florida.pdf|access-date=2021-02-05|website=paed.org.ph}}</ref><ref>[https://hakaimagazine.com/article-short/bright-lights-and-dark-nights-the-challenge-facing-sea-turtles-in-the-city/ Bright Lights and Dark Nights: The Challenge Facing Sea Turtles in the City]</ref> Lighting restrictions can prevent lights from shining on the beach and confusing hatchlings. Sea turtle-safe lighting uses red or amber LED light, invisible to sea turtles, in place of white light.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Artificial Lighting – Sea Turtle Conservancy|url=https://conserveturtles.org/information-sea-turtles-threats-artificial-lighting/|access-date=2021-02-05|language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Poaching ====
[[File:Turtle egg kota bharu.jpg|thumb|Sea turtle eggs sold in a market of Malaysia]]
Another major threat to sea turtles is the black-market trade in eggs and meat. This is a problem throughout the world, but especially a concern in China, the Philippines, India, Indonesia and the coastal nations of Latin America. Estimates reach as high as 35,000 sea turtles killed a year in Mexico and the same number in Nicaragua. Conservationists in Mexico and the United States have launched "Don't Eat Sea Turtle" campaigns in order to reduce this trade in sea turtle products. These campaigns have involved figures such as [[Dorismar]], [[Los Tigres del Norte]] and [[Maná]]. Sea turtles are often consumed during the Catholic season of Lent, even though they are reptiles, not fish. Consequently, conservation organizations have written letters to the Pope asking that he declare sea turtles meat.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Pope Asked to Call Sea Turtles 'Meat'|url = https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-mar-14-me-turtle14-story.html|newspaper = Los Angeles Times|date = 2002-03-14|access-date = 2015-12-22|issn = 0458-3035|language = en-US|first = Kenneth r.|last = WEISS}}</ref>

==== Marine debris ====
Another danger to sea turtles comes from [[marine debris]], especially plastics, such as in the [[Great Pacific Garbage Patch]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seeturtles.org/ocean-plastic|title=Ocean Plastic|website=SEE Turtles|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-20}}</ref> which may be mistaken for jellyfish, and [[Ghost net|abandoned fishing nets]] in which they can become entangled.

Sea turtles in all types are being endangered by the way humans use plastic. Recycling is known of and people recycle but not everyone does. The amount of plastic in the oceans and beaches is growing every day. The littering<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seeturtles.org/ocean-plastic|title=Ocean Plastic|website=SEE Turtles|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> of plastic is 80% of the amount.

When turtles hatch from their eggs on the beach, they are already endangered with plastic. Turtles have to find the ocean by themselves and on their journey from land to sea, they encounter a lot of plastic. Some even get trapped in the plastic and die from lack of resources and from the sun being too hot.

Sea turtles eat plastic bags<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/what-do-sea-turtles-eat-unfortunately-plastic-bags|title=What do sea turtles eat? Unfortunately, plastic bags.|website=World Wildlife Fund|language=en|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> because they confuse them with their actual diet, jellyfish, algae and other components. The consumption of plastic is different for every breed of sea turtle, but when they ingest the plastic, it can clog their intestines and cause internal bleeding which will eventually kill them.

In 2015, an olive ridley sea turtle was found with a plastic drinking straw lodged inside its nose.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=Nick |title=Sea turtle trauma: Video shows rescuers extracting plastic straw from deep in nostril |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/08/17/researchers-save-a-sea-turtle-from-a-plastic-straw-in-this-traumatic-video/ |access-date=2 February 2020 |work=Huffington Post}}</ref> The video of [[Nathan J. Robinson (biologist)|Nathan J. Robinson]] has helped raise considerable awareness about the threat posed by [[plastic pollution]] to sea turtles.

The research into turtle consumption of plastic is growing. A laboratory of Exeter<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/05/world/microplastic-pollution-turtles-study-intl-scli/index.html|title=Microplastics found in gut of every sea turtle in new study|author=Matthew Robinson|website=CNN| date=5 December 2018 |access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> and Plymouth Marine tested 102 turtles and found plastic in every one of their stomachs. The researchers found more than 800 pieces of plastic in those 102 turtles. That was 20 times more than what was found in the last research. Those researchers stated that the most common things found were cigarette buds, tire, plastic in many forms and fishing material.

The chemicals in the plastic that sea life eats damages their internal organs and can also clog their airway. The chemicals in the plastic that they eat is also a leading cause of the death of the turtles. If the turtles are close to laying eggs, the chemicals that they ingested from the plastic can seep into their eggs and affect their offspring. It is unlikely for the baby sea turtles to survive with those chemicals in their system.

There is a large quantity of plastic in the ocean, 80% of which comes from landfills; the ratio of plankton to plastic in the ocean is one to six. The [[Great Pacific Garbage Patch]] is a swirl of garbage in the Pacific Ocean that is {{convert|20|ft|m|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} deep and contains 3.5 million tons of garbage. This is also known as the "plastic island".

==== Climate change ====
[[Climate change]] may also cause a threat to sea turtles. Since sand temperature at nesting beaches defines the sex of a sea turtle while developing in the egg, there is concern that rising temperatures may produce too many females.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://conserveturtles.org/information-sea-turtles-threats-climate-change/|title=Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Climate Change – Sea Turtle Conservancy|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-25}}</ref> However, more research is needed to understand how climate change might affect sea turtle gender distribution and what other possible threats it may pose.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hawkes | first1 = LA | last2 =Broderick | first2 =AC | title = Climate change and marine turtles | journal = Endangered Species Research | volume =7 | pages = 137–154| year = 2009 | doi = 10.3354/esr00198 | last3 = Godfrey | first3 = MH | last4 = Godley | first4 = BJ | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Studies have shown that climate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanconservancy.org/blog/2018/01/25/not-cool-climate-change-turning-99-sea-turtles-female/|title=Not Cool: Climate Change Turning 99% of These Sea Turtles Female|date=2018-01-25|website=Ocean Conservancy|language=en|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> change in the world is making sea turtles gender change. The study that was in January 2018 ''[[Current Biology]]'' "Environmental Warning and Feminization of One of the Largest Sea Turtle Populations in the World", showed how baby sea turtles were being born female a lot more than being born male. Scientists took blood samples from many baby sea turtles near the Great Barrier Reef. Prior to this study, the ratio of male to female was pretty normal. There was a little more female than there was male but it was enough to keep reproduction and life cycle normal. The study showed that there was 99% more female sea turtles then male.

The temperature<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://conserveturtles.org/information-sea-turtles-threats-climate-change/|title=Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Climate Change – Sea Turtle Conservancy|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> of the sand has a big impact on the sex of the sea turtle. This is not common with other animals but it is with sea turtles. Warmer or hot sand usually makes the sea turtle female and the cooler the sand usually makes male. Climate change has made the temperatures much hotter than they should be. The temperature of the sand gets hotter every time it is time for sea turtles to lay their eggs. With that, adaption to the sand should occur but it would take generations for them to adapt to that one temperature. It would be hard because the temperature of the sand is always changing.

The sand temperature is not the only thing that impacts sea turtles. The rise of the sea levels messes with their memory. They have an imprinted map in their memory that shows where they usually give birth and go after they do. With the rise in water levels, that map is getting messed up and is hard for them to get back to where they started. It is also taking away their beaches that they lay their eggs on. Climate change also has an impact on the number of storms and the severity of them. Storms can wipe out the sea turtles nesting ground and take out the eggs that already laid. The rising level of water is also a way for the nesting grounds to disappear. Sea turtles maps and their nesting grounds getting destroyed is harmful to them. That is because with their maps being messed up and not being able to lay eggs where they usually do makes it hard for them to find a new place to nest. They usually stick to a schedule and the messing up of a schedule messes them up.

The temperature of the ocean is also rising. This impacts their diet and what they can eat. Coral reefs are majorly impacted by the rising temperatures and a lot of sea turtles' diet is coral reefs or in the coral reef. Most animals that live in coral reefs need the reefs to survive. With the reefs dying, the sea life around it also does, impacting many animals.

==== Oil spills ====
Sea turtles are very vulnerable to oil pollution, both because of the oil's tendency to linger on the water's surface, and because oil can affect them at every stage of their life cycle.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hirsch|first=Masako|title=Gulf oil spill's effects on sea turtles examined|url=http://www.nola.com/news/gulf-oil-spill/index.ssf/2010/06/gulf_oil_spills_effects_on_sea.html|access-date=17 May 2012|newspaper=nola.com|date=9 June 2010}}</ref>  Oil can poison the sea turtles upon entering their digestive system.

Sea turtles<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/about/media/how-do-oil-spills-affect-sea-turtles.html|title=How Do Oil Spills Affect Sea Turtles? {{!}} response.restoration.noaa.gov|website=response.restoration.noaa.gov|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> have a cycle that they follow from birth. The cycle depends on the sex of the turtle, but they follow it all the way through life. They start by hatching on the beach, they reach the water then move out to find food. They then start their breeding migration and then mate with another turtle. For females, they make their way to the beach to start it all over again. With males, they go back to feeding after mating and doing that over again. Oil spills can affect this cycle majorly. If the female was to go and lay eggs and ingest oil, the chemicals from the oil can get passed on to the offspring and will be hard for them to survive. The diet of the sea turtles can also be impacted by oil. If the things that they eat has oil on it or has ingested oil, it can get into their system and start attacking the insides of the turtle.

==== Rehabilitation ====
Injured sea turtles are rescued and [[Wildlife rehabilitation|rehabilitated]] (and, if possible, released back to the ocean) by professional organizations, such as the [[Gumbo Limbo Environmental Complex|Gumbo Limbo Nature Center]] in Boca Raton, Florida, the Karen Beasley Sea Turtle Rescue and Rehabilitation Center in Surf City, North Carolina, and [[Sea Turtles 911]] in Hainan, China.

One rescued sea turtle, named Nickel for the coin that was found lodged in her throat, lives at the [[Shedd Aquarium]] in [[Chicago]].

The goal of rehabilitation is to improve sea turtles' quality of life. Rehabilitation is often carried out using treatments intended to address any injuries or illnesses that a turtle may be suffering from. Another option is [[analgesia]]. Euthanasia frequently relieves the pain of sea turtles who are seriously ill or damaged. <ref name=":25">{{Cite journal |last1=Innis |first1=Charles |last2=Finn |first2=Sarah |last3=Kennedy |first3=Adam |last4=Burgess |first4=Elizabeth |last5=Norton |first5=Terry |last6=Manire |first6=Charles |last7=Harms |first7=Craig |date=16 April 2019 |title=A Summary of Sea Turtles Released from Rescue and Rehabilitation Programs in the United States, with Observations on Re-Encounters |url=https://bioone.org/journals/chelonian-conservation-and-biology/volume-18/issue-1/CCB-1335.1/A-Summary-of-Sea-Turtles-Released-from-Rescue-and-Rehabilitation/10.2744/CCB-1335.1.short |journal=Chelonian Conservation and Biology |volume=18 |issue=1|page=3 |doi=10.2744/CCB-1335.1 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

Sea turtles can be returned to the wild if their rehabilitation is complete and they are in optimal health. The larger turtles are given a flipper tag and a [[passive integrated transponder]] (PIT) prior to being released. Despite having identifying tags, the turtles' living conditions often make it difficult to determine the results of rehabilitation.<ref name=":25" />

=== Symbiosis with barnacles ===
Sea turtles are believed to have a [[Commensalism|commensal]] relationship with some [[barnacle]]s, in which the barnacles benefit from growing on sea turtles without harming them. Barnacles are small, hard-shelled crustaceans found attached to multiple different substrates below or just above the ocean. The adult barnacle is a [[Sessility (zoology)|sessile]] organism; however, in its larval stage it is [[plankton]]ic and can move about the water column. The larval stage chooses where to settle and ultimately the habitat for its full adult life, which is typically between 5 and 10 years. However, estimates of age for a common sea turtle barnacle species, ''Chelonibia testudinaria'', suggest that this species lives for at least 21 months,<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Doell|first1=Sophie A.|last2=Connolly|first2=Rod M.|last3=Limpus|first3=Colin J.|last4=Pearson|first4=Ryan M.|last5=van de Merwe|first5=Jason P.|date=2017|title=Using growth rates to estimate age of the sea turtle barnacle Chelonibia testudinaria|journal=Marine Biology|language=en|volume=164|issue=12|page=222|doi=10.1007/s00227-017-3251-5|bibcode=2017MarBi.164..222D |s2cid=31961046|issn=0025-3162}}</ref> with individuals older than this uncommon. ''Chelonibia'' barnacles have also been used to distinguish between the foraging areas of sea turtle hosts. By analyzing stable isotope ratios in barnacle shell material, scientist can identify differences in the water (temperature and salinity) that different hosts have been swimming through and thus differentiate between the home areas of host sea turtles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pearson|first1=Ryan M.|last2=van de Merwe|first2=Jason P.|last3=Gagan|first3=Michael K.|last4=Limpus|first4=Colin J.|last5=Connolly|first5=Rod M.|date=2019|title=Distinguishing between sea turtle foraging areas using stable isotopes from commensal barnacle shells|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=6565|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-42983-4|pmid=31024029|pmc=6483986|issn=2045-2322|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.6565P}}</ref>

A favorite settlement for barnacle larvae is the shell or skin around the neck of sea turtles. The larvae glue themselves to the chosen spot, a thin layer of flesh is wrapped around them and a shell is secreted. Many species of barnacles can settle on any substrate; however, some species of barnacles have an obligatory commensal relationship with specific animals, which makes finding a suitable location harder.<ref name="ZardusHadfield2004">{{Cite journal | last1 = Zardus | first1 = J. D. | last2 = Hadfield | first2 = M. G. | doi = 10.1651/C-2476 | title = Larval development and complemental males in ''Chelonibia testudinaria'', a barnacle commensal with sea turtles | journal = Journal of Crustacean Biology | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 409–421 | year = 2004 | doi-access = free| bibcode = 2004JCBio..24..409H }}</ref> Around 29 species of "turtle barnacles" have been recorded. However, it is not solely on sea turtles that barnacles can be found; other organisms also serve as a barnacle's settlements. These organisms include mollusks, whales, decapod crustaceans, manatees and several other groups related to these species.<ref>Epibiont Research Cooperative. 2007. [http://www.seaturtle.org/documents/ERC-SP1.pdf A synopsis of the literature on the turtle barnacle (Cirripedia: Balanomorpha: Coronuloidea) 1758–2007]. Accessed 28 Nov 2012.</ref>

Sea turtle shells are an ideal habitat for adult barnacles for three reasons. Sea turtles tend to live long lives, greater than 70 years, so barnacles do not have to worry about host death. However, mortality in sea turtle barnacles is often driven by their host shedding the scutes on which the barnacle is attached, rather than the death of the sea turtle itself.<ref name=":15" /> Secondly, barnacles are [[suspension feeder]]s. Sea turtles spend most of their lives swimming and following ocean currents and as water runs along the back of the sea turtle's shell it passes over the barnacles, providing an almost constant water flow and influx of food particles. Lastly, the long distances and inter-ocean travel these sea turtles swim throughout their lifetime offers the perfect mechanism for dispersal of barnacle larvae. Allowing the barnacle species to distribute themselves throughout global waters is a high fitness advantage of this commensalism.<ref>[http://bio390parasitology.blogspot.ca/2012/03/free-ride-under-sea-barnacles-and.html A free ride under the sea: barnacles and baleen whales]. Themes of Parasitology. 2012. Web. 28 Nov 2012.</ref>

This relationship, however, is not truly commensal. While the barnacles are not directly [[Parasitism|parasitic]] to their hosts, they have negative effects to the sea turtles on which they choose to reside. The barnacles add extra weight and drag to the sea turtle, increasing the energy it needs for swimming and affecting its ability to capture prey, with the effect increasing with the quantity of barnacles affixed to its back.{{Citation needed|reason=The previous reference for this paragraph does not seem to support it? http://true-wildlife.blogspot.ca/2011/01/barnacle.html|date=January 2022}}