Editing Sleep paralysis (section)

== Society and culture ==
=== Etymology ===
[[File:Der Albtraum (Anonym 19 Jh).jpg|thumb|230px|A 19th century version of ''[[Henry Fuseli|Füssli's]] The Nightmare'' (1781)]]
The original definition of sleep paralysis was codified by [[Samuel Johnson]] in his ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' as ''[[nightmare]]'', a term that evolved into the modern definition. The term was first used and dubbed by British neurologist, [[Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson|S.A.K. Wilson]] in his 1928 dissertation, ''The Narcolepsies.''<ref>Wilson S. A. K. (1928). The narcolepsies. ''Brain'' 51 63–109. 10.1093/brain/51.1.63</ref> Such sleep paralysis was widely considered the work of [[demon]]s, and more specifically [[Incubus|incubi]], which were thought to sit on the chests of sleepers. In [[Old English language|Old English]], the name for these beings was ''mare'' or ''mære'' (from a [[proto-Germanic language|proto-Germanic]] ''*marōn'', cf. [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''[[mara (folklore)|mara]]''), hence comes the ''mare'' in the word ''nightmare''. The word might be [[cognate]] to [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''Marōn'' (in the [[Odyssey]]) and [[Sanskrit]] ''[[Mara (demon)|Māra]]''.

=== Cultural significance and priming ===
[[File:Augustins - Cauchemar - Eugène Thivier - RI 1156.jpg|thumb|230px|''Le Cauchemar'' (''The Nightmare''), by Eugène Thivier (1894)]]Although the core features of sleep paralysis (e.g., atonia, a clear sensorium, and frequent hallucinations) appear to be universal, the ways in which they are experienced vary according to time, place, and culture.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Jalal|first1=Baland|last2=Simons-Rudolph|first2=Joseph|last3=Jalal|first3=Bamo|last4=Hinton|first4=Devon E.|date=2014-04-01|title=Explanations of sleep paralysis among Egyptian college students and the general population in Egypt and Denmark|journal=Transcultural Psychiatry|volume=51|issue=2|pages=158–175|doi=10.1177/1363461513503378|issn=1461-7471|pmid=24084761|s2cid=22226921}}</ref> Over 100 terms have been identified for these experiences.<ref name=":7" /> Some scientists have proposed sleep paralysis as an explanation for reports of paranormal and spiritual phenomena such as [[ghost]]s,<ref name=":8">{{cite book|title=The terror that comes in the night : an experience-centered study of supernatural assault traditions / monograph.|last=David.|first=Hufford|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-1305-8|oclc=862147963|date = September 1989}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal|last1=Hinton|first1=Devon E.|last2=Pich|first2=Vuth|last3=Chhean|first3=Dara|last4=Pollack|first4=Mark H.|date=2005-03-01|title='The Ghost Pushes You Down': Sleep Paralysis-Type Panic Attacks in a Khmer Refugee Population|journal=Transcultural Psychiatry|language=en|volume=42|issue=1|pages=46–77|doi=10.1177/1363461505050710|issn=1363-4615|pmid=15881268|s2cid=35609685}}</ref> alien visits,<ref>Blackmore, Susan. (1998) [http://www.csicop.org/si/show/abduction_by_aliens_or_sleep_paralysis "Abduction by Aliens or Sleep Paralysis?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813121544/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/abduction_by_aliens_or_sleep_paralysis |date=2010-08-13 }}. ''Skeptical Inquirer'', May/June 1998. (Retrieved 13 May 2014)</ref> [[demons]] or [[demonic possession]],<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" /> [[alien abduction]] experiences,<ref name="pmid15881271">{{cite journal |vauthors=McNally RJ, Clancy SA |title=Sleep Paralysis, Sexual Abuse, and Space Alien Abduction |journal=[[Transcultural Psychiatry]] |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=113–122 |year=2005|pmid=15881271 |doi=10.1177/1363461505050715|s2cid=9569785 }}</ref><ref name="Cordon2005-8">{{cite book|title=Popular Psychology: An Encyclopedia|first=Luis A.|last=Cordón|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2005|isbn=978-0-313-32457-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/popularpsycholog0000cord/page/8 8]|section=Alien abduction|url=https://archive.org/details/popularpsycholog0000cord|url-access=registration}}</ref> the [[night hag]] and [[shadow people]] haunting.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Cheynetwothree" />

According to some scientists, culture may be a major factor in shaping sleep paralysis.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal|last1=Jalal|first1=Baland|last2=Hinton|first2=Devon E.|date=2013-07-25|title=Rates and Characteristics of Sleep Paralysis in the General Population of Denmark and Egypt|journal=Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry|language=en|volume=37|issue=3|pages=534–548|doi=10.1007/s11013-013-9327-x|pmid=23884906|s2cid=28563727|issn=0165-005X}}</ref> When sleep paralysis is interpreted through a particular cultural filter, it may take on greater salience. For example, if sleep paralysis is feared in a certain culture, this fear could lead to conditioned fear, and thus worsen the experience, in turn leading to higher rates.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" /> Consistent with this idea, high rates and long durations of immobility during sleep paralysis have been found in Egypt, where there are elaborate beliefs about sleep paralysis, involving [[malevolent spirit]]-like creatures, the ''[[jinn]].''<ref name=":6" />

Research has found that sleep paralysis is associated with great fear and fear of impending death in 50% of sufferers in Egypt. A study comparing rates and characteristics of sleep paralysis in Egypt and Denmark found that the phenomenon is three times more common in Egypt than Denmark.<ref name=":6" /> In Denmark, unlike Egypt, there are no elaborate supernatural beliefs about sleep paralysis, and the experience is often interpreted as an odd physiological event, with overall shorter sleep paralysis episodes and fewer people (17%) fearing that they could die from it.<ref name=":2" />

=== Folklore ===
{{main|Night hag}}
The [[night hag]] is a generic name for a folkloric creature found in cultures around the world, and which is used to explain the phenomenon of sleep paralysis. A common description is that a person feels the presence of a supernatural malevolent being which immobilizes the person as if standing on the chest.<ref>''Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art'', Volume 1, edited by Thomas A. Green, [https://books.google.com/books?id=S7Wfhws3dFAC&pg=PA588 p. 588] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519001150/https://books.google.com/books?id=S7Wfhws3dFAC&pg=PA588|date=2015-05-19}}</ref> This phenomenon goes by many names.

==== Albania ====
In [[Albanian folk beliefs]], ''Mokthi'' is believed to be a male spirit with a golden [[Fez (hat)|fez]] hat who appears to women who are usually tired or suffering and stops them from moving. It is believed that if they can take his golden hat, he will grant them a wish, but then he will visit them frequently although he is harmless. There are talismans that can provide protection from Mokthi and one way is to put one's husband's hat near the pillow while sleeping. ''Mokthi'' or ''Makthi'' in [[Albanian language|Albanian]] means "Nightmare".<ref>{{cite book |last=Qazimi |first=Azem |title=Fjalor i Mitologjisë dhe Demonologjisë Shqiptare |publisher=Plejad |year=2008 |isbn=978-99956-706-1-0 |location=Tiranë, Albania |pages=97 |language=sq}}</ref>

==== Bengal ====
In [[Bangladeshi folk literature|Bengali folklore]], sleep paralysis is believed to be caused by a supernatural entity called ''[[Ghosts in Bengali culture|Boba]]'' ({{langx|bn|বোবা|lit=dumb}}). ''Boba'' attacks a person by strangling him when the person sleeps in a [[supine position]]. In [[Bengal]], the phenomenon is called ''Bobay Dhora'' ({{langx|bn|বোবায় ধরা|lit=Struck by ''Boba''}}).<ref>{{Citation|last=health.banglablog24.com|script-title=bn:রাতের বেলায় ‘বোবা ভূত ধরা’ এর প্রতিকার জানুন!|url=http://health.banglablog24.com/রাতের-বেলায়-বোবা-ভূত-ধরা/}}</ref>

==== Cambodia ====
Sleep paralysis among [[Cambodia]]ns is known as "the ghost pushes you down," and entails the belief in dangerous visitations from deceased relatives.<ref name=":3" />

==== Egypt ====
In [[Egypt]], sleep paralysis is conceptualized as a terrifying ''[[jinn]]'' attack''.''<ref name=":2" />

==== Italy ====
In the different regions of [[Italy]], there are many examples of supernatural beings associated with sleep paralysis. In the regions of [[Marche]] and [[Abruzzo]], it is referred to as a ''{{interlanguage link|Pandafeche|it}}'' or ''{{interlanguage link|pantafica|it}}'' attack;<ref name=":1" /> the ''Pandafeche'' usually refers to an evil [[Witchcraft|witch]], sometimes a ghostlike spirit or a terrifying catlike creature, that mounts on the chest of the victim and tries to harm him. The only way to avoid her is to keep a bag of sand or beans close to the bed, so that the witch will stop to count how many beans or sand-grains are inside it. A similar tradition is present in the [[Sardinia]]n folklore, where the ''Ammuntadore'' is known as a creature that mounts on the people's chest during their sleep to give them nightmares, and it can change its shape according to the person's fears. In Northern Italy, specifically in the [[Tyrol]] area, the ''Trud'' is a witch that sits on the people's chest at night, making them unable to breathe; to chase her away, people should make the [[Sign of the cross|sign of the Cross]], something that would need a great struggle in a situation of paralysis.<ref>{{cite book|title=Trentino da leggenda|publisher=Panorama|year=2000|isbn=|location=|pages=125}}</ref> A similar folklore is present in the [[Samnium|Sannio]] area, around the city of [[Benevento]], where the witch is called ''[[Witches of Benevento|Janara]]''.<ref name=":10" /> In Southern Italy, sleep paralysis is usually explained with the presence of a [[Sprite (folklore)|sprite]] standing on the people's chest; if the person manages to catch the sprite (or steal his hat), in exchange for his freedom (or to have his hat back) he can reveal the hiding place of a rich treasure; this sprite has different names in different regions of Italy: Monaciello in [[Campania]], Monachicchio in [[Basilicata]], Laurieddhu or Scazzamurill in [[Apulia]], Mazzmuredd in [[Molise]].<ref name=":10">{{cite book|last=Lazzarato|first=Francesca|title=Le creature del Piccolo Popolo|publisher=Mondadori|year=1995|isbn=88-04-40555-4|location=|pages=23–46}}</ref>

==== Newfoundland ====
In [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]], which is in eastern Canada, sleep paralysis is referred to as the Old Hag,<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Hag (noun)|publisher=University of Toronto Press|others=W. J. Kirwin and J.D.A Widdowson|year=1990|editor-last=Story|editor-first=George|location=Toronto}}</ref> and victims of a ''hagging'' are said to be ''hag-ridden'' upon awakening.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hufford|first=David|date=2005|title=Sleep Paralysis as Spiritual Experience|journal=Transcultural Psychiatry|volume=42|issue=1|pages=11–45|doi=10.1177/1363461505050709|pmid=15881267|s2cid=8400951}}</ref> Victims report being completely conscious, but unable to speak or move, and report a person or an animal which sits upon their chest.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal|last=Ness|first=Robert|date=1978|title=The old hag phenomenon as sleep paralysis: A biocultural interpretation|journal=Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry|volume=2|issue=1|pages=15–39|doi=10.1007/BF00052448|pmid=699620|s2cid=1613137}}</ref> Despite the name, the attacker can be either male or female.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hufford|first=David|title=Out of the Ordinary: Folklore and the Supernatural|publisher=University Press of Colorado|year=1995|editor-last=Walker|editor-first=Barbara|pages=11–45|chapter=Beings Without Bodies: An Experience-Centered Theory of the Belief in Spirits}}</ref> Some suggested cures or preventions for the Old Hag include sleeping with a Bible under the pillow,<ref name=":9" /> calling the sleeper's name backwards<ref>{{cite web|last=Rieti|first=Barbara|date=1989|title=The Black Heart in Newfoundland: The Magic of the Book|url=http://collections.mun.ca/cdm/ref/collection/cult_trad/id/3233|access-date=2020-06-25|website=Culture and Tradition Volume 13}}</ref> or in an extreme example, sleeping with a shingle or board embedded with nails strapped to the chest.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1896|title=Superstitions in Newfoundland|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=9|issue=34|pages=222–223|doi=10.2307/533410|jstor=533410}}</ref> This object was called a Hag Board.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Guy|first=Ray|date=2010|title=That Old Nonsense|url=http://collections.mun.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/quarterly/id/40813/rec/65|journal=The Newfoundland Quarterly|volume=103|issue=2|pages=12–13}}</ref> The Old Hag is well-enough known in the province to be a pop culture figure, appearing in films and plays<ref>{{cite news|date=19 March 2018|title=Gordon Pinsent explores depression with short film Martin's Hagge|work=CBC.ca|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/martins-hagge-gordon-pinsent-1.4582725|access-date=27 June 2020}}</ref> as well as in crafted objects.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jarvis|first=Dale Gilbert|date=October 2018|title=Exploring Folklore Through Craft with Janet Peter|url=https://www.mun.ca/ich/resources/ICH_Case_Study_001__Janet_Peter_WEB2.pdf|journal=Living Heritage Economy Case Study|volume=001}}</ref>

====Nigeria====
[[Nigeria]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Olunu|first1=Esther|last2=Kimo|first2=Ruth|last3=Onigbinde|first3=Esther Olufunmbi|last4=Akpanobong|first4=Mary-Amadeus Uduak|last5=Enang|first5=Inyene Ezekiel|last6=Osanakpo|first6=Mariam|last7=Monday|first7=Ifure Tom|last8=Otohinoyi|first8=David Adeiza|last9=Fakoya|first9=Adegbenro Omotuyi John|date=2018|title=Sleep Paralysis, a Medical Condition with a Diverse Cultural Interpretation|journal=International Journal of Applied and Basic Medical Research|volume=8|issue=3|pages=137–142|doi=10.4103/ijabmr.IJABMR_19_18|issn=2229-516X|pmc=6082011|pmid=30123741 |doi-access=free }}</ref> has myriad interpretations of the cause of sleep paralysis, due to numerous cultures and belief systems that exist there.

==== United States ====
Sleep paralysis is sometimes interpreted as space alien abduction in the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McNally|first1=Richard J.|last2=Clancy|first2=Susan A.|date=2005-03-01|title=Sleep Paralysis, Sexual Abuse, and Space Alien Abduction|journal=Transcultural Psychiatry|language=en|volume=42|issue=1|pages=113–122|doi=10.1177/1363461505050715|issn=1363-4615|pmid=15881271|s2cid=9569785}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
Various forms of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and [[spiritual possession]] were also advanced as causes, in literature. In nineteenth-century [[Europe]], the vagaries of diet were thought to be responsible. For example, in [[Charles Dickens]]'s ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'', [[Ebenezer Scrooge]] attributes the [[ghost]] he sees to "... an undigested bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese, a fragment of an underdone potato..." In a similar vein, the ''[[Household Cyclopedia]]'' (1881) offers the following advice about nightmares:

<blockquote>Great attention is to be paid to regularity and choice of diet. Intemperance of every kind is hurtful, but nothing is more productive of this disease than drinking bad wine. Of eatables those which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy meats and pastry. Moderate exercise contributes in a superior degree to promote the digestion of food and prevent flatulence; those, however, who are necessarily confined to a sedentary occupation, should particularly avoid applying themselves to study or bodily labor immediately after eating. Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent cause of night-mare, as it either occasions the patient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the night. Passing a whole night or part of a night without rest likewise gives birth to the disease, as it occasions the patient, on the succeeding night, to sleep too soundly. Indulging in sleep too late in the morning, is an almost certain method to bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently it returns, the greater strength it acquires; the propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresistible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/medicine.html#nightmare|title=The Household Cyclopedia – Medicine<!-- Bot generated title -->|website=mspong.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091202195226/http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/medicine.html#nightmare|archive-date=2009-12-02}}</ref></blockquote>

[[J. M. Barrie]], the author of the [[Peter Pan]] stories, may have had sleep paralysis. He said of himself "In my early boyhood it was a sheet that tried to choke me in the night."<ref>{{cite book|title=My Ghastly Dream.|last=Barrie|first=James|publisher=Edinburgh Evening Post|year=1887}}</ref> He also described several incidents in the Peter Pan stories that indicate that he was familiar with an awareness of a loss of muscle tone whilst in a dream-like state. For example, Maimie is asleep but calls out "What was that....It is coming nearer! It is feeling your bed with its horns-it is boring for [into] you",<ref>{{cite book|title=Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens|last=Barrie|first=James|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|year=1906}}</ref> and when the Darling children were dreaming of flying, Barrie says "Nothing horrid was visible in the air, yet their progress had become slow and laboured, exactly as if they were pushing their way through hostile forces. Sometimes they hung in the air until Peter had beaten on it with his fists."<ref>{{cite book|title=Peter and Wendy|last=Barrie|first=James|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|year=1911}}</ref> Barrie describes many [[parasomnia]]s and neurological symptoms in his books and uses them to explore the nature of consciousness from an experiential point of view.<ref>{{cite book|title=Peter Pan and the Mind of J. M. Barrie. An Exploration of Cognition and Consciousness.|last=Ridley|first=Rosalind|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4438-9107-3}}</ref>

=== Documentary films ===
[[The Nightmare (2015 American film)|''The Nightmare'']] is a 2015 documentary that discusses the causes of sleep paralysis as seen through extensive interviews with participants, and the experiences are re-enacted by professional actors. In synopsis, it proposes that such cultural phenomena as [[alien abduction]], the [[near-death experience]] and [[shadow person|shadow people]] can, in many cases, be attributed to sleep paralysis. The "real-life" horror film debuted at the [[2015 Sundance Film Festival|Sundance Film Festival]] on January 26, 2015, and premiered in theatres on June 5, 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstshowing.net/2015/watch-first-trailer-for-creepy-sleep-paralysis-doc-the-nightmare/|title=Watch: First Trailer for Creepy Sleep Paralysis Doc 'The Nightmare'|website=firstshowing.net|date=May 2015 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503024546/http://www.firstshowing.net/2015/watch-first-trailer-for-creepy-sleep-paralysis-doc-the-nightmare/|archive-date=2015-05-03}}</ref>