Editing Comparative genomics (section)

====Vaccine development====
The medical field also benefits from the study of comparative genomics. In an approach known as [[reverse vaccinology]], researchers can discover candidate antigens for vaccine development by analyzing the genome of a [[pathogen]] or a family of pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Seib KL, Zhao X, Rappuoli R | title = Developing vaccines in the era of genomics: a decade of reverse vaccinology | journal = Clinical Microbiology and Infection | volume = 18 | issue = Suppl 5 | pages = 109–116 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22882709 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03939.x | hdl-access = free | doi-access = free | hdl = 10072/50260 }}</ref> Applying a comparative genomics approach by analyzing the genomes of several related pathogens can lead to the development of vaccines that are multi-protective. A team of researchers employed such an approach to create a universal vaccine for [[Streptococcus agalactiae|Group B Streptococcus]], a group of bacteria responsible for severe [[neonatal infection]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Maione D, Margarit I, Rinaudo CD, Masignani V, Mora M, Scarselli M, Tettelin H, Brettoni C, Iacobini ET, Rosini R, D'Agostino N, Miorin L, Buccato S, Mariani M, Galli G, Nogarotto R, Nardi-Dei V, Vegni F, Fraser C, Mancuso G, Teti G, Madoff LC, Paoletti LC, Rappuoli R, Kasper DL, Telford JL, Grandi G | title = Identification of a universal Group B streptococcus vaccine by multiple genome screen | journal = Science | volume = 309 | issue = 5731 | pages = 148–150 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15994562 | pmc = 1351092 | doi = 10.1126/science.1109869 | bibcode = 2005Sci...309..148M }}</ref> Comparative genomics can also be used to generate specificity for vaccines against pathogens that are closely related to commensal microorganisms. For example, researchers used comparative genomic analysis of [[commensal]] and pathogenic strains of [[Escherichia coli|''E. coli'']] to identify pathogen-specific genes as a basis for finding antigens that result in immune response against pathogenic strains but not commensal ones.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rasko DA, Rosovitz MJ, Myers GS, Mongodin EF, Fricke WF, Gajer P, Crabtree J, Sebaihia M, Thomson NR, Chaudhuri R, Henderson IR, Sperandio V, Ravel J | title = The pangenome structure of Escherichia coli: comparative genomic analysis of E. coli commensal and pathogenic isolates | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 190 | issue = 20 | pages = 6881–6893 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18676672 | pmc = 2566221 | doi = 10.1128/JB.00619-08 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In May 2019, using the Global Genome Set, a team in the UK and Australia sequenced thousands of globally-collected isolates of [[Streptococcus#Group A|Group A Streptococcus]], providing potential targets for developing a vaccine against the pathogen, also known as [[Streptococcus pyogenes|''S. pyogenes'']].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2019 |url=https://www.genomeweb.com/sequencing/group-streptococcus-vaccine-target-candidates-identified-global-genome-set#.XRKFu_ZFxPY |title=Group a Streptococcus Vaccine Target Candidates Identified from Global Genome Set}}</ref>

'''Personalized Medicine'''

[[Personalized medicine|Personalized Medicine]], enabled by Comparative Genomics, represents a revolutionary approach in healthcare, tailoring medical treatment and disease prevention to the individual patient's genetic makeup.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sadee W | title = Genomics and personalized medicine | journal = International Journal of Pharmaceutics | volume = 415 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 2–4 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21539903 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.04.048 }}</ref> By analyzing [[genetic variation]]s across populations and comparing them with an individual's genome, clinicians can identify specific [[genetic marker]]s associated with disease susceptibility, [[drug metabolism]], and treatment response. By identifying genetic variants associated with drug metabolism pathways, drug targets, and [[adverse reaction]]s, personalized medicine can optimize medication selection, dosage, and treatment regimens for individual patients. This approach minimizes the risk of adverse drug reactions, enhances treatment efficacy, and improves patient outcomes.

'''Cancer'''

[[Cancer genomics|Cancer Genomics]] represents a cutting-edge field within oncology that leverages comparative genomics to revolutionize [[cancer]] diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies. Comparative genomics plays a crucial role in cancer research by identifying [[driver mutations]], and providing comprehensive analyses of [[mutation]]s, [[Copy number variation|copy number]] alterations, structural variants, [[gene expression]], and [[DNA methylation]] profiles in large-scale studies across different cancer types. By analyzing the genomes of cancer cells and comparing them with healthy cells, researchers can uncover key genetic alterations driving [[tumorigenesis]], tumor progression, and [[metastasis]]. This deep understanding of the genomic landscape of cancer has profound implications for precision [[oncology]]. Moreover, Comparative Genomics is instrumental in elucidating mechanisms of [[drug resistance]]—a major challenge in cancer treatment.

[[File:New Mouse and Human Comparison (2).png|thumb|upright=1.15|[[T-cell receptor|TCR]] loci from humans (H, top) and mice (M, bottom) are compared, with TCR elements in red, non-TCR genes in purple, and V segments in orange, other TCR elements in red. M6A, a putative [[methyltransferase]]; ZNF, a [[zinc-finger protein]]; OR, [[olfactory receptor]] genes; DAD1, defender against [[cell death]]; The sites of species-specific, processed pseudogenes are shown by gray triangles. See also [[GenBank]] accession numbers AE000658-62. Modified after Glusman et al. 2001.<ref name="glusman2001" /> ]]