Editing Conspiracy theory (section)

===Target audience===
Strategies to address conspiracy theories have been divided into two categories based on whether the target audience is the conspiracy theorists or the general public.<ref name="LewandowskyCook2020"/><ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/> These strategies have been described as reducing [[Supply and demand|either the supply or the demand]] for conspiracy theories.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/> Both approaches can be used at the same time, although there may be issues of limited resources, or if arguments are used which may appeal to one audience at the expense of the other.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/>

Brief scientific literacy interventions, particularly those focusing on critical thinking skills, can effectively undermine conspiracy beliefs and related behaviors. Research led by Penn State scholars, published in the ''[[Journal of Consumer Research]]'', found that enhancing scientific knowledge and reasoning through short interventions, such as videos explaining concepts like correlation and causation, reduces the endorsement of conspiracy theories. These interventions were most effective against conspiracy theories based on faulty reasoning and were successful even among groups prone to conspiracy beliefs. The studies, involving over 2,700 participants, highlight the importance of educational interventions in mitigating conspiracy beliefs, especially when timed to influence critical decision-making.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Tutella|first1=Francisco|last2=University|first2=Pennsylvania State|title=Brief scientific literacy interventions may quash new conspiracy theories|access-date=2024-12-02|url=https://phys.org/news/2024-12-scientific-literacy-interventions-quash-conspiracy.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hedrih|first=Vladimir|title=Scientific literacy undermines conspiracy beliefs|work=PsyPost – Psychology News|access-date=2024-12-02|date=2024-07-11|url=https://www.psypost.org/scientific-literacy-undermines-conspiracy-beliefs/}}</ref>

====General public====
People who feel [[Empowerment|empowered]] are more resistant to conspiracy theories. Methods to promote empowerment include encouraging people to use [[analytical thinking]], [[Priming (psychology)|priming]] people to think of situations where they are in control, and ensuring that decisions by society and government are seen to follow procedural fairness (the use of fair decision-making procedures).<ref name="LewandowskyCook2020">{{cite book|last1=Lewandowsky|first1=S.|last2=Cook|first2=J.|title=The Conspiracy Theory Handbook|publisher=John Cook, Center for Climate Change Communication, George Mason University|year=2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCGxzQEACAAJ|access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>

Methods of refutation which have shown effectiveness in various circumstances include: providing facts that demonstrate the conspiracy theory is false, attempting to discredit the source, explaining how the logic is invalid or misleading, and providing links to fact-checking websites.<ref name="LewandowskyCook2020"/> It can also be effective to use these strategies in advance, informing people that they could encounter misleading information in the future, and why the information should be rejected (also called inoculation or prebunking).<ref name="LewandowskyCook2020"/><ref name="ConnollyUscinski2019"/><ref name="LazicZezelj2021"/> While it has been suggested that discussing conspiracy theories can raise their profile and make them seem more legitimate to the public, the discussion can put people on guard instead as long as it is sufficiently persuasive.<ref name="Andrade2020"/>

Other approaches to reduce the appeal of conspiracy theories in general among the public may be based in the emotional and social nature of conspiratorial beliefs. For example, interventions that promote [[analytical thinking]] in the general public are likely to be effective. Another approach is to intervene in ways that decrease [[negative emotion]]s, and specifically to improve feelings of personal hope and empowerment.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018">{{cite journal|last1=van Prooijen|first1=Jan-Willem|last2=Douglas|first2=Karen M.|title=Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain|journal=European Journal of Social Psychology|volume=48|issue=7|year=2018|pages=897–908|doi=10.1002/ejsp.2530|pmid=30555188|pmc=6282974}}</ref>

====Conspiracy theorists====
It is much more difficult to convince people who already believe in conspiracy theories.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="LewandowskyCook2020"/> Conspiracist belief systems are not based on external evidence, but instead use [[circular logic]] where every belief is supported by other conspiracist beliefs.<ref name="LewandowskyCook2020"/> In addition, conspiracy theories have a "self-sealing" nature, in which the types of arguments used to support them make them resistant to questioning from others.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/>

Characteristics of successful strategies for reaching conspiracy theorists have been divided into several broad categories: 1) Arguments can be presented by "trusted messengers", such as people who were formerly members of an extremist group. 2) Since conspiracy theorists think of themselves as people who value critical thinking, this can be affirmed and then redirected to encourage being more critical when analyzing the conspiracy theory. 3) Approaches demonstrate empathy, and are based on building understanding together, which is supported by modeling open-mindedness in order to encourage the conspiracy theorists to do likewise. 4) The conspiracy theories are not attacked with ridicule or aggressive deconstruction, and interactions are not treated like an argument to be won; this approach can work with the general public, but among conspiracy theorists it may simply be rejected.<ref name="LewandowskyCook2020"/>

Interventions that reduce feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, or powerlessness result in a reduction in conspiracy beliefs.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/> Other possible strategies to mitigate the effect of conspiracy theories include education, media literacy, and increasing governmental openness and transparency.<ref name="ConnollyUscinski2019"/> Due to the relationship between conspiracy theories and political extremism, the academic literature on [[deradicalization]] is also important.<ref name="LewandowskyCook2020"/>

One approach describes conspiracy theories as resulting from a "crippled epistemology", in which a person encounters or accepts very few relevant sources of information.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="Hardin2002"/> A conspiracy theory is more likely to appear justified to people with a limited "informational environment" who only encounter misleading information. These people may be "[[Epistemology|epistemologically]] isolated" in [[filter bubble|self-enclosed networks]]. From the perspective of people within these networks, disconnected from the information available to the rest of society, believing in conspiracy theories may appear to be justified.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="Hardin2002">{{cite book|last=Hardin|first=Russell|title=Political Extremism and Rationality|chapter=The Crippled Epistemology of Extremism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=7 January 2002|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511550478.002|page=20|isbn=978-0-521-80441-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyUmy7SJra4C}}</ref> In these cases, the solution would be to break the group's informational isolation.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/>