Editing Content theory (section)

==Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation==
Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as ''intrinsic'' (internal or inherent in the activity itself) motivation and ''extrinsic'' (contingent on external rewards or punishment) motivation.

===Intrinsic motivation===
{{See also|Ikigai}}
{{other uses|intrinsic motivation (artificial intelligence)}}
Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is a behavior that is driven by satisfying internal rewards. For example, an athlete may enjoy playing football for the experience, rather than for an award.<ref name=":4" /> It is an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. Deci (1971) explained that some activities provide their own inherent reward, meaning certain activities are not dependent on external rewards.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal | last1=Deci | first1=Edward L. | last2=Koestner | first2=Richard | last3=Ryan | first3=Richard M. |date=1999|title=A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=125|issue=6|pages=627–668 | issn=1939-1455 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627 |pmid=10589297| s2cid=15271950 }}</ref> The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity-driven behaviors in the absence of [[reward system|reward]]. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Richard M.|last2=Deci|first2=Edward L.|year=2000|title=Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being|journal=American Psychologist|volume=55|issue=1|pages=68–78|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.4370|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68|pmid=11392867|s2cid=1887672 }}</ref> The two necessary elements for intrinsic motivation are [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]] and an increase in perceived competence.<ref>{{cite book |title = Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior |last1 = Deci |first1 = Edward L. |last2 = Ryan |first2 = Richard M. |isbn = 978-1-4899-2271-7 |location = New York |oclc = 861705534 |date = 2013-06-29 }}</ref> In short, the cause of the behavior must be internal, known as internal locus of causality, and the individual who engages in the behavior must perceive that the task increases their competence.<ref name="Ryan" /> According to various research reported by Deci's published findings in 1971, and 1972, tangible rewards could actually undermine the intrinsic motivation of college students. However, these studies did not just affect college students: Kruglanski, Friedman, and Zeevi (1971) repeated this study and found that symbolic and material rewards can undermine not just high school students, but preschool students as well.

Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Wigfield |first1 = A. |last2 = Guthrie |first2 = J. T. |last3 = Tonks |first3 = S. |last4 = Perencevich |first4 = K. C. |year = 2004 |title = Children's motivation for reading: Domain specificity and instructional influences |journal = Journal of Educational Research |volume = 97 |issue = 6 |pages = 299–309 |doi = 10.3200/joer.97.6.299-310 |s2cid = 145301292 }}</ref> Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they...
* attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or [[locus of control]]
* believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as [[self-efficacy]] beliefs
* are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades
*do not act from pressure, but from interest

An example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge, and will continue to want to learn even in the face of failure.<ref>{{cite web |last1 = Root |first1 = George N. III |title = Examples of Intrinsic Workplace Motivation |url = http://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-intrinsic-workplace-motivation-11382.html |website = Chron |access-date = 27 November 2014 }}</ref> [[Art for art's sake]] is an example of intrinsic motivation in the domain of art.

Traditionally, researchers thought of motivations to use computer systems to be primarily driven by extrinsic purposes; however, many modern systems have their use driven primarily by intrinsic motivations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Benjamin Lowry |first1 = Paul |last2 = Gaskin |first2 = James |last3 = Twyman |first3 = Nathan W. |last4 = Hammer |first4 = Bryan |last5 = Roberts |first5 = Tom L. |year = 2013 |title = Taking 'fun and games' seriously: Proposing the hedonic-motivation system adoption model (HMSAM) |ssrn = 2177442 |journal = Journal of the Association for Information Systems |volume = 14 |issue = 11 |pages = 617–671 |doi = 10.17705/1jais.00347 |s2cid = 2810596 |url = https://aisel.aisnet.org/jais/vol14/iss11/2 |url-access = subscription }}</ref> Examples of such systems used primarily to fulfill users' intrinsic motivations, include on-line gaming, virtual worlds, online shopping,<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Parker |first1 = Christopher J. |last2 = Wang |first2 = Huchen |title = Examining hedonic and utilitarian motivations for m-commerce fashion retail app engagement |journal = Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management |volume = 20 |issue = 4 |pages = 487–506 |doi = 10.1108/JFMM-02-2016-0015 |year = 2016 |url = https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/examining-hedonic-and-utilitarian-motivations-for-mcommerce-fashion-retail-app-engagement(98defb8e-c227-43b1-824b-9f8b55b61cca).html }}</ref> learning/education, online dating, digital music repositories, social networking, online pornography, gamified systems, and general gamification. Even traditional management information systems (e.g., ERP, CRM) are being 'gamified' such that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations must increasingly be considered. Deci's findings did not come without controversy. Articles stretching over the span of 25 years from the perspective of behavioral theory argue that there is not enough evidence to explain intrinsic motivation and this theory would inhibit "scientific progress". As stated above, we now can see technology such as various forms of computer systems are highly intrinsic.<ref name=":8" />

Not only can intrinsic motivation be used in a personal setting, but it can also be implemented and utilized in a social environment. Instead of attaining mature desires, such as those presented above via the internet which can be attained on one's own, intrinsic motivation can be used to assist extrinsic motivation to attain a goal. For example, Eli, a 4-year-old with autism, wants to achieve the goal of playing with a toy train.<ref>StoryStudio. "One type of therapy is addressing autism, dementia, and so much more." San Francisco Gate, California Applied Behavior Analysis, 4 Aug. 2017, blog.sfgate.com/storystudio/2017/08/04/one-type-of-therapy-is-tackling-autism-dementia-and-so-much-more/. Accessed 15 Nov. 2017.</ref> To get the toy, he must first communicate to his therapist that he wants it. His desire to play is strong enough to be considered intrinsic motivation because it is a natural feeling, and his desire to communicate with his therapist to get the train can be considered extrinsic motivation because the outside object is a reward (see incentive theory). Communicating with the therapist is the first, the slightly more challenging goal that stands in the way of achieving his larger goal of playing with the train. Achieving these goals in attainable pieces is also known as the [[goal-setting theory]]. The three elements of goal-setting (STD) are Specific, Time-bound, and Difficult. Specifically, goals should be set in the 90th percentile of difficulty.<ref name="Rueda and Moll 1994">{{cite book |last1 = Rueda |first1 = Richard |last2 = Moll |first2 = Luis C. |editor1-last = O'Neill, Jr. |editor1-first = Harold F. |editor2-last = Drillings |editor2-first = Michael |title = Motivation: Theory and Research |date = 1994 |publisher = Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. |location = Hillsdale, NJ |isbn = 978-0-8058-1286-2 |chapter = Chapter 7: A Sociocultural Perspective on Motivation }}</ref>

Intrinsic motivation comes from one's desire to achieve or attain a goal.<ref name=":4" /> Pursuing challenges and goals come easier and more enjoyable when one is intrinsically motivated to complete a certain objective because the individual is more interested in learning, rather than achieving the goal.<ref name="Ryan">{{cite journal |last = Ryan |first = Richard |author2 = Edward L. Deci |title = Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions |journal = [[Contemporary Educational Psychology]] |year = 2000 |volume = 25 |issue = 1 |pages = 54–67 |doi = 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 |pmid = 10620381 |citeseerx = 10.1.1.318.808 |s2cid = 1098145 }}</ref>  Edward Deci and Richard Ryan's theory of intrinsic motivation is essentially examining the conditions that "elicit and sustain" this phenomenon.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000"/>{{rp|70-71}} Deci and Ryan coined the term "cognitive evaluation theory" which concentrates on the needs of competence and autonomy. The CET essentially states that social-contextual events like feedback and reinforcement can cause feelings of competence and therefore increase intrinsic motivation. However, feelings of competence will not increase intrinsic motivation if there is no sense of autonomy. In situations where choices, feelings, and opportunities are present, intrinsic motivation is increased because people feel a greater sense of autonomy.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000"/>{{rp|70-71}} Offering people choices, responding to their feelings, and opportunities for self-direction have been reported to enhance intrinsic motivation via increased autonomy.<ref>Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum</ref><ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000"/>

An advantage (relative to extrinsic motivation) is that intrinsic motivators can be long-lasting, self-sustaining, and satisfying.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000" /> For this reason, efforts in education sometimes attempt to modify intrinsic motivation with the goal of promoting future student learning performance, creativity, and learning via long-term modifications in [[Interest (emotion)|interests]].<ref name=":4" /> Intrinsic motivation has been found to be hard to modify, and attempts to recruit existing intrinsic motivators require a non-trivially difficult individualized approach, identifying and making relevant the different motivators  needed to motivate different students,<ref name=":4" /> possibly requiring additional skills and intrinsic motivation from the instructor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/|title=Motivating Students|date=2010-06-11|access-date=4 March 2015}}</ref> In a workplace situation, intrinsic motivation is likely to be rare and risks being falsely identified, as most workers will always be subject to extrinsic motivation such as the fear of unemployment, the need to gain a living and fear of rejection by coworkers in cases of poor performance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kreps |first=David M. |date=1997 |title=Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Incentives |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2950946 |journal=The American Economic Review |volume=87 |issue=2 |pages=359–364 |jstor=2950946 |issn=0002-8282}}</ref>

===Extrinsic motivation===
{{See also|Goal orientation}}
Extrinsic motivation comes from influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic motivation, the harder question to answer is where do people get the motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence. Usually, extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person would not get from intrinsic motivation.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000"/> Common extrinsic motivations are [[reward system|rewards]] (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.<ref name=Motivation>{{cite web |last = Dewani |first = Vijay |title = Motivation |url = http://www.slideshare.net/vijaydewani7/motivation-15959567 |publisher = slideshare |access-date = 22 March 2013 |date = 2013-01-12 }}</ref> For example, if an individual plays the sport tennis to receive an award, that would be extrinsic motivation. VS. if the individual plays because he or she enjoys the game, which would be intrinsic motivation.<ref name=":4" />

The most simple distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is the type of reasons or goals that lead to an action. While intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable and satisfying, extrinsic motivation, refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000" /> Extrinsic motivation thus contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which is doing an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, instead of for its instrumental value.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |doi = 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 |pmid = 10620381 |title = Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions |journal = Contemporary Educational Psychology |volume = 25 |issue = 1 |pages = 54–67 |year = 2000 |last1 = Ryan |first1 = Richard M. |last2 = Deci |first2 = Edward L. |citeseerx = 10.1.1.318.808 |s2cid = 1098145 }}</ref>

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to [[overjustification effect|overjustification]] and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lepper |first1 = Mark R. |last2 = Greene |first2 = David |last3 = Nisbet |first3 = Richard |year = 1973 |title = Undermining Children's Intrinsic Interest with Extrinsic Reward; A Test of 'Overjustification' Hypothesis |journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume = 28 |issue = 1 |pages = 129–37 |doi = 10.1037/h0035519 |s2cid = 40981945 }}</ref> This shows how if an individual expects an award they do not care about the outcome. VS. if an individual does not expect a reward they will care more about the task.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000" /> However, another study showed that third graders who were rewarded with a book showed more reading behavior in the future, implying that some rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Marinak |first1 = Barbara A. |last2 = Gambrell |first2 = Linda B. |year = 2008 |title = Intrinsic Motivation and Rewards: What Sustains Young Children's Engagement with Text? |journal = Literacy Research and Instruction |volume = 47 |issue = 1 |pages = 9–26 |doi = 10.1080/19388070701749546 |s2cid = 145209271 }}</ref>  While the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Wilson |first1 = T. D. |last2 = Lassiter |first2 = G. D. |year = 1982 |title = Increasing intrinsic interest with superfluous extrinsic constraints |journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume = 42 |issue = 5 |pages = 811–819 |doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.42.5.811 }}</ref>

Advantages of extrinsic motivators are that they easily promote motivation to work and persist to goal completion. Rewards are tangible and beneficial.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000" /> A disadvantage for extrinsic motivators relative to internal is that work does not persist long once external rewards are removed. As the task is completed for the reward, the quality of work may need to be monitored,<ref name=":4" /> and it has been suggested that extrinsic motivators may diminish in value over time.<ref name="Ryan, R. M. 2000" />