Editing Djembe (section)

==Construction==

=== Shell ===
Traditionally crafted djembes are carved from a single log of hardwood. A number of different wood species are used, all of which are hard and dense. Hardness and density are important factors for the sound and projection of the djembe. The most prized djembe wood is ''lenke'' (''[[Afzelia africana]]''), not because it necessarily sounds better than other woods, but because the Malinké believe that its spiritual qualities are superior. (Malinké traditional wisdom states that a spiritual energy, or ''[[Blacksmiths of western Africa#Mande blacksmiths|nyama]]'', runs through all things, living or dead.<ref name= 
"MM">{{cite book|title=Mande Music: Traditional and Modern Music of the Maninka and Mandinka of Western Africa|first=Eric|last=Charry|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-226-10161-3}}</ref>) Besides lenke, traditional woods include ''djalla'' (''[[Khaya senegalensis]]''), ''dugura'' (''[[Cordyla africana]]''), ''gueni'' (''[[Pterocarpus erinaceus]]''), ''gele'' (''[[Prosopis africana]]''), and ''[[iroko]]'' (''[[Milicia excelsa]]'').<ref name="Woods">{{cite web |first=Michi |last=Henning |title=Djembe Woods: What You Need to Know |url=http://djembefola.com/learn/articles/djembe-woods |access-date=January 19, 2012 |publisher=djembefola.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103141203/http://djembefola.com/articles/djembe-woods.php |archive-date=January 3, 2012 |url-status=live |df=mdy }}</ref>

[[File:Djembe - Inside Spiral.JPG|thumb|alt=Spiral pattern on the inside of a well-carved djembe made of djalla wood. The spine of the skin is clearly visible through the hole in the waist|Spiral pattern on the inside of a well-carved djembe (djalla wood). The spine of the skin is clearly visible through the hole in the waist.]]

Shells are carved soon after the tree is felled while the wood still retains some moisture and is softer. This makes the wood easier to carve and avoids radial splits that tend to develop in logs that are allowed to dry naturally.<ref name="Drying">{{cite book|title=Kiln-Drying of Lumber|first1=Roger B.|last1=Keey|first2=Timothy A. G.|last2=Langrish|first3=John C. F.|last3=Walker|year=2000|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-642-59653-7}}</ref> Carvers use simple hand tools, such as [[axe]]s, [[adze]]s, [[spoke shave]]s, and [[rasp]]s to shape the shell.<ref name="Sunkett DVD">{{cite video|title=Mandiani Drum and Dance: Djimbe Performance & Black Aesthetics from Africa to the New World|publisher=White Cliffs Media|location=Tempe, AZ|first=Mark|last=Sunkett|medium=DVD|year=1995|others=Companion DVD to the book}}</ref><ref>{{cite video|title=Djembé Spielen Lernen: Herstellung, Geschichte, Tradition|first=Ursula|last=Branscheid-Diabaté|year=2010|location=Neusäß, Germany|publisher=Leu-Verlag|language=de|medium=DVD}}</ref> A well-carved djembe does not have a smooth interior but a texture of scallops or shallow grooves that influence the sound of the instrument. (Djembes with smooth interiors have tones and slaps with too much sustain.) Often, interior grooves form a spiral pattern, which indicates a carver taking pride in his work.

=== Skin ===
The djembe is headed with a rawhide skin, most commonly goatskin. Other skins, such as antelope, cow, kangaroo, or horse can be used as well. Thicker skins, such as cow, have a warmer sound with more overtones in the slaps; thinner skins have a sharper sound with fewer overtones in the slaps and are louder. Thick skins make it easier to play full tones but more difficult to play sharp slaps; for thin skins, the opposite applies. Thin skins are louder than thick ones. Thick skins, such as cow, are particularly hard on the hands of the player and cause more callousing than goatskins.

Skins from dry and hot-climate areas and poorly fed goats are preferred for djembes because of their low fat content. Skins from cold-climate goats with high-value nutrition have more than double the fat content; they tend to sound dull and lifeless in comparison. Even though the fat content of male goats is lower than that of female goats,<ref>{{cite thesis |title=Biological Factors Influencing the Nature of Goat Skins and Leather |degree=Ph.D. |first=Philippa |last=Stosic |date=May 1994 |publisher=University of Leicester |location=UK |url=http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/AAPS/Articles/Goats/Production/R4273.pdf |access-date=January 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708091436/http://www.smallstock.info/research/reports/R5186/R5186-PhdThesis.pdf |archive-date=July 8, 2019 |url-status=live |df=mdy }}</ref> many players prefer female skins because they do not smell as strongly and are reputed to be softer.

The skin is mounted with the spine running through the centre of the drum head, with the line of the spine pointing at the player, so the hands strike either side of the spine. Animal skins are thicker at the spine than the sides; mounting the skin with the spine centered ensures that the left and right hand play symmetric areas of equal size and thickness. In turn, this helps to minimize differences in pitch of the notes played by the left and right hand. Normally, the head end of the spine points at the player, so the hands strike the area of the skin that used to be the shoulders of the goat. With thicker skins, such as from a cow or horse, the skin round is usually taken from the side of the hide so it does not include the spine, which is too thick for use on a djembe.

Skins may be shaved prior to mounting or afterwards, or may be de-haired by [[Tanning (leather)#Liming|liming]]. Liming weakens skins; some djembefolas also claim that limed skins are harder on their hands and do not sound as good as untreated skins.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://djembefola.com/board/technical-advice/damn-seriously-t3500.html#p23988 |title=Damn it.....seriously!! |first=Tom |last=Kondas |access-date=January 20, 2012 |archive-date=January 4, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104010549/http://djembefola.com/board/technical-advice/damn-seriously-t3500.html |url-status=live |publisher=djembefola.com |work=Djembe Forum |date=December 9, 2011 |df=mdy }}</ref>

Factory-made djembes often use skins made from synthetic materials, such as [[FiberSkyn]].

=== Rope ===
Modern djembes exclusively use synthetic rope, most commonly of [[kernmantle]] construction, 4–5&nbsp;mm in diameter. Low-stretch (static) rope is preferred. Most djembe ropes have a [[polyester]] core with a 16‑ or 32‑plait mantle and around 5% stretch. Very low-stretch (&lt;1%) rope materials, such as [[Vectran]] and [[Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene|Spectra]], are used only rarely due to their much higher cost.


===Mounting system===
The mounting system for the skin has undergone a number of changes over time.

====Traditional mounting====
[[File:Historical djembe.jpg|thumb|upright|Traditional djembe used by the [[Kono people]] from the [[Nzérékoré]] region in [[Guinée forestière|Forest Guinea]]. (From the collection of [[Musée de l'Homme]], Paris, added to the collection in 1938.)]]

Originally, the skin was attached by wooden pegs that were driven through holes in the skin and the shell near the playing edge. Four to five people would stretch the wet skin over the drum to apply tension while the pegs were driven into the bowl. The shrinkage of the skin while it dried then applied sufficient additional tension for the skin to resonate.<ref name="Dublin">{{cite video |people=Mamady Keïta |title=Djembe talk and performance with Mamady Keïta at the Big Bang festival in Dublin, Ireland |volume=Part 1 |format=flv |url=http://djembefola.com/mamady-keita-interview.php |access-date=January 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103151853/http://djembefola.com/mamady-keita-interview.php |archive-date=January 3, 2012 |url-status=dead |publisher=djembefola.com |year=2009 |time=14:05 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> A similar mounting technique is still used by the Landouma (a subgroup of the [[Baga people]]) for a djembe-like drum known as a ''gumbe''.<ref name="Koumbassa">{{cite video|title=Landouma Fare: From the Heartland|medium=DVD|people=Youssouf Koumbassa (himself), Julian McNamara, Kate Farrell (directors)|publisher=B-rave Studio|year=2010}}</ref> This mounting technique most likely goes back hundreds of years; the exact period is unknown.

Up until the 1980s, the most common mounting system used twisted strips of cowhide as rope. The skin was attached with rings made of cowhide; one ring was sewn into the perimeter of the skin and a second ring placed below it, with loops holding the skin in place and securing the two rings together. A long strip of cowhide was used to lace up the drum, applying tension between the top ring and a third ring placed around the stem. To apply further tension, the vertical sections of the rope were woven into a diamond pattern that shortens the verticals. Wooden pegs wedged between the shell and the lacing could be used to increase tension still further.<ref name="Dublin" />

The pitch of these traditional djembes was much lower than it is today because the natural materials imposed a limit on the amount of tension that could be applied. Prior to playing, djembefolas heated the skin near the flames of an open fire, which drives moisture out of the skin and causes it to shrink and increase the pitch of the drum. This process had to be repeated frequently, every 15–30 minutes.<ref name="Polak Bamako" />

====Modern mounting====
[[File:Manamana 001.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Djembe with modern two-ring mounting system|Djembe with modern two-ring mounting system]]

The modern mounting system arose in the early seventies, when touring ballets came into contact with synthetic rope used by the military. Initially, the synthetic rope was used to replace the twisted cowhide strips. However, the rope could now be tightened to the point where it tore through the skin; in response, drum makers started using steel rings instead of twisted cowhide to hold the skin in place.<ref name="Dublin" /> Despite objections from many djembefolas, the modern mounting system gradually displaced the traditional one and, by 1991 had completely replaced it.<ref name="Polak Bamako" />

The skin is held in place by being trapped between the top ring, called the ''crown ring'', and the ring below it, called the ''flesh ring''. A third ring (the ''bottom ring'') is placed around the stem. The rings are commonly made from 6–8&nbsp;mm (¼–⅓&nbsp;in) [[rebar]]. A series of [[cow hitch]]es on the crown ring and bottom ring form loops. Through these loops, a length of rope connects the crown ring and the bottom ring; tightening this rope applies tension. As the vertical rope is tensioned, the cow hitches on the crown ring press the skin against the flesh ring below; this attaches the skin to the flesh ring very securely and stretches the skin over the bearing edge of the drum.
<gallery caption="Mounting systems" heights="150" mode="packed">
File:Djembe skin mounting system.jpg|alt=Schematic of two-ring skin mounting|Schematic of two-ring skin mounting
File:Djembe skin mounting system - three rings.jpg|alt=Schematic of three-ring skin mounting|Schematic of three-ring skin mounting
</gallery>

[[File:Djembe.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Fibreglass djembe with synthetic skin and lug tuning system|Fibreglass djembe with synthetic skin and lug tuning system]]

A variation of this technique, introduced in the early 2000s, uses three rings instead of two. The idea of this technique is to increase the number of friction points trapping the skin to make it less likely for the skin to slip between the rings as tension is applied. There is no firm consensus in the djembe community as to whether the benefits of this mounting are worth the extra weight and added complexity.<ref name="doc">{{cite book|title=Djembe Construction: A Comprehensive Guide|first=Michi|last=Henning|date=May 2012|isbn=978-0-9872791-0-1}}</ref><ref name="three ring">{{cite web |url=http://djembefola.com/board/technical-advice/three-top-rings-yea-nay-t855.html |date=March 18, 2009 |access-date=May 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110171140/http://djembefola.com/board/technical-advice/three-top-rings-yea-nay-t855.html |archive-date=January 10, 2012 |url-status=live |publisher=djembefola.com |work=Djembe Forum |title=Three top rings? Yea or nay |df=mdy }}</ref>

To prevent damage to the rope from rust flakes, as well as for aesthetic reasons, the rings are often wrapped with strips of colored cloth.

Factory-made djembes (often from synthetic materials, such as [[fiberglass]]), use a similar system. However, instead of by vertical ropes, the top ring is pulled against the flesh ring by mechanical lugs that are tightened with a wrench.