Editing Elephant (section)

==Behaviour and ecology==
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Elephant eating Yala Sri Lanka.ogv
| caption1 = An Asian elephant feeding on grass in Sri Lanka
| image2 = African elephant (Loxodonta africana) reaching up 1.jpg
| caption2 = An African bush elephant using its prehensile trunk for foraging
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Elephants are [[Herbivore|herbivorous]] and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass, and roots. African elephants mostly [[Browsing (herbivory)|browse]], while Asian elephants mainly [[Grazing (behaviour)|graze]].<ref name=Shoshani42 /> They can eat as much as {{convert|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of food and drink {{convert|40|L|gal|abbr=on}} of water in a day. Elephants tend to stay near water sources.<ref name=Shoshani42 /><ref name=Shoshani124 /> They have morning, afternoon, and nighttime feeding sessions. At midday, elephants rest under trees and may doze off while standing. Sleeping occurs at night while the animal is lying down.<ref name=Shoshani124 /> Elephants average 3–4 hours of sleep per day.<ref name="Siegel">{{cite journal|author=Siegel, J. M.|s2cid=234089|year=2005|title=Clues to the functions of mammalian sleep|journal=Nature|volume=437|issue=7063|pages=1264–1271|doi=10.1038/nature04285|pmid=16251951|pmc=8760626|bibcode=2005Natur.437.1264S}}</ref> Both males and family groups typically move no more than {{convert|20|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} a day, but distances as far as {{convert|180|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} have been recorded in the [[Etosha National Park|Etosha]] region of Namibia.<ref>Sukumar, p. 159.</ref> Elephants go on seasonal migrations in response to changes in environmental conditions.<ref>Sukumar, p. 174.</ref> In northern Botswana, they travel {{convert|325|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} to the [[Chobe River]] after the local waterholes dry up in late August.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hoare, B. |year=2009 |title=Animal Migration: Remarkable Journeys in the Wild|publisher=University of California Press|pages=58–59|isbn=978-0-520-25823-5}}</ref>

Because of their large size, elephants have a huge impact on their environments and are considered [[keystone species]]. Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands;<ref name=Shoshani226 /> smaller herbivores can access trees mowed down by elephants.<ref name=Shoshani124 /> When they dig for water during droughts, they create waterholes that can be used by other animals. When they use waterholes, they end up making them bigger.<ref name=Shoshani226 /> At [[Mount Elgon]], elephants dig through caves and pave the way for [[ungulate]]s, hyraxes, bats, birds, and insects.<ref name=Shoshani226 /> Elephants are important [[Seed dispersal|seed dispersers]]; African forest elephants consume and deposit many seeds over great distances, with either no effect or a positive effect on [[germination]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Campos-Arceiz, A.|author2=Blake, S.|year=2011|title=Mega-gardeners of the forest – the role of elephants in seed dispersal|journal=Acta Oecologica|volume=37|issue=6|pages=542–553|doi=10.1016/j.actao.2011.01.014|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/timbillo/Readings%20and%20documents/CO2%20and%20Forests%20readings/Campos%20Arceiz%202011%20Elephant%20seed%20dispersal.pdf|bibcode=2011AcO....37..542C|access-date=22 November 2012|archive-date=18 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618142027/http://faculty.washington.edu/timbillo/Readings%20and%20documents/CO2%20and%20Forests%20readings/Campos%20Arceiz%202011%20Elephant%20seed%20dispersal.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In Asian forests, large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and [[rhinoceros]] for transport and dispersal. This ecological niche cannot be filled by the smaller [[Malayan tapir]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Campos-Arceiz, A. |author2=Traeholt, C. |author3=Jaffar, R. |author4=Santamaria, L. |author5=Corlett, R. T. |year=2012|title=Asian tapirs are no elephants when it comes to seed dispersal|journal=Biotropica|volume=44|issue=2|pages=220–227|doi=10.1111/j.1744-7429.2011.00784.x|bibcode=2012Biotr..44..220C |hdl=10261/56573 |s2cid=83604698 }}</ref> Because most of the food elephants eat goes undigested, their dung can provide food for other animals, such as [[dung beetle]]s and monkeys.<ref name=Shoshani226>Shoshani, pp. 226–29.</ref> Elephants can have a negative impact on ecosystems. At [[Murchison Falls National Park]] in Uganda, elephant numbers have threatened several species of small birds that depend on woodlands. Their weight causes the soil to compress, leading to [[surface runoff|runoff]] and [[erosion]].<ref name=Shoshani124>Eltringham, pp. 124–27.</ref>

Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores, which will usually stay out of their way. Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded.<ref name=Shoshani124 /> The size of adult elephants makes them nearly invulnerable to [[predator]]s.<ref name=Asian /> Calves may be preyed on by [[lion]]s, [[spotted hyena]]s, and [[Lycaon pictus|wild dogs]] in Africa<ref name=African>{{cite journal|author1=Laursen, L.|author2=Bekoff, M.|year=1978|title=''Loxodonta africana''|journal=Mammalian Species|pages=1–8|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-092-01-0001.pdf|jstor=3503889|doi=10.2307/3503889|issue=92|s2cid=253949585 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430140501/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-092-01-0001.pdf|archive-date=30 April 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and [[tiger]]s in Asia.<ref name=Asian /> The lions of [[Chobe National Park#Geography and ecosystems|Savuti]], Botswana, have adapted to hunting elephants, targeting calves, juveniles or even sub-adults.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Power, R. J. |author2=Shem Compion, R. X. |s2cid=86371484 |year=2009 |title=Lion predation on elephants in the Savuti, Chobe National Park, Botswana |journal=[[African Zoology]] |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=36–44 |doi=10.3377/004.044.0104}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Joubert |first=D. |year=2006 |title=Hunting behaviour of lions (''Panthera leo'') on elephants (''Loxodonta africana'') in the Chobe National Park, Botswana |journal= African Journal of Ecology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=279–281 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00626.x|bibcode=2006AfJEc..44..279J }}</ref> There are rare reports of adult Asian elephants falling prey to tigers.<ref>{{cite news |year=2009 |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article103095.ece |title=Tiger kills elephant at Eravikulam park |newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] |access-date=21 June 2014 |archive-date=11 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511041022/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article103095.ece |url-status=dead }}</ref> Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites, particularly [[nematode]]s, compared to many other mammals. This may be due to elephants being less vulnerable to predation; in other mammal species, individuals weakened by significant [[parasite load]]s are easily killed off by predators, removing them from the population.<ref>Sukumar, p. 121.</ref>

===Social organisation===
[[File:Serengeti Elefantenherde1.jpg|thumb|A family of African bush elephants]]
Elephants are generally [[gregarious]] animals. African bush elephants in particular have a complex, stratified social structure.<ref name="deSilva1"/> Female elephants spend their entire lives in tight-knit [[Matrilineality|matrilineal]] family groups.<ref name=Sukumar175/> {{Anchor|Matriarch}} They are led by the [[Matriarchy#Other_animals|matriarch]], who is often the eldest female.<ref>Sukumar, p. 186.</ref> She remains leader of the group until death<ref name=African /> or if she no longer has the energy for the role;<ref name=Kingdon53>Kingdon, p. 53.</ref> a study on zoo elephants found that the death of the matriarch led to greater stress in the surviving elephants.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Harris, M.|author2=Sherwin, C.|author3=Harris, S.|url=http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WC05007_7719_FRP.pdf|title=Defra final report on elephant welfare|publisher=University of Bristol|year=2008|access-date=30 October 2012|archive-date=24 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141124052942/http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WC05007_7719_FRP.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> When her tenure is over, the matriarch's eldest daughter takes her place instead of her sister (if present).<ref name=African /> One study found that younger matriarchs take potential threats less seriously.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=McComb, K. |author2=Shannon, G. |author3=Durant, S. M. |author4=Sayialel, K. |author5=Slotow, R. |author6=Poole, J. |author7=Moss, C. |year=2011 |title=Leadership in elephants: the adaptive value of age |journal=  Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=278 |issue=1722 |pages=3270–3276 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2011.0168 |url=http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/cmvcr/Publications_files/ElephantLeadersProofs.pdf |pmid=21411454 |pmc=3169024 |access-date=26 December 2012 |archive-date=29 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429173959/http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/cmvcr/Publications_files/ElephantLeadersProofs.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Large family groups may split if they cannot be supported by local resources.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Vaughan, T. |author2=Ryan, J. |author3=Czaplewski, N. |year=2011|title=Mammalogy|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|page=136|isbn=978-0763762995}}</ref>

At [[Amboseli National Park]], Kenya, female groups may consist of around ten members, including four adults and their dependent offspring. Here, a cow's life involves interaction with those outside her group. Two separate families may associate and bond with each other, forming what are known as bond groups. During the dry season, elephant families may aggregate into clans. These may number around nine groups, in which clans do not form strong bonds but defend their dry-season ranges against other clans. The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the "central" and "peripheral" subpopulations.<ref name=Sukumar175>Sukumar, pp. 172, 175–79.</ref>

Female Asian elephants tend to have more fluid social associations.<ref name="deSilva1">{{cite journal |last1=de Silva |first1=S. |last2=Wittemyer |first2=G. |year=2012 |title=A comparison of social organization in Asian elephants and African savannah elephants |journal=International Journal of Primatology |volume=  33|issue= 5|pages= 1125–1141|doi=10.1007/s10764-011-9564-1 |s2cid=17209753 }}</ref> In Sri Lanka, there appear to be stable family units or "herds" and larger, looser "groups". They have been observed to have "nursing units" and "juvenile-care units". In southern India, elephant populations may contain family groups, bond groups, and possibly clans. Family groups tend to be small, with only one or two adult females and their offspring. A group containing more than two cows and their offspring is known as a "joint family". Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units and do not reach levels above a bond group. Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one cow with one to three offspring. These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings.<ref name=Sukumar175 />

[[File:Asian Elephant at Corbett National Park 15.jpg|thumb|Lone bull: Adult male elephants spend much of their time alone or in single-sex groups]]
Adult males live separate lives. As he matures, a bull associates more with outside males or even other families. At Amboseli, young males may be away from their families 80% of the time by 14–15 years of age. When males permanently leave, they either live alone or with other males. The former is typical of bulls in dense forests. A [[dominance hierarchy]] exists among males, whether they are social or solitary. Dominance depends on age, size, and sexual condition.<ref name=Sukumar179 /> Male elephants can be quite sociable when not competing for mates and form vast and fluid social networks.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goldenberg|first1=S. Z.|last2=de Silva|first2=S.|last3=Rasmussen|first3=H. B.|last4=Douglas-Hamilton|first4=I.|last5=Wittemyer|first5=G.|year=2014|title=Controlling for behavioural state reveals social dynamics among male African elephants, ''Loxodonta africana''|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=95|pages=111–119|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.07.002|s2cid=53152412 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=LaDue|first1=C. A.|last2=Vandercone|first2=R. P. G.|last3=Kiso|first3=W. K.|last4=Freeman|first4=E. W.|year=2022|title=Social behavior and group formation in male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): the effects of age and musth in wild and zoo-housed animals|journal=Animals|volume=12|issue=9|page=1215|doi=10.3390/ani12091215 |pmid=35565641 |pmc=9100748 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Older bulls act as the leaders of these groups.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Allen|first1=C. R. B.|last2=Brent|first2=L. J. N.|last3=Motsentwa|first3=T|last4=Weiss|first4=M. N.|last5=Croft|first5=D. P.|year=2020|title=Importance of old bulls: leaders and followers in collective movements of all-male groups in African savannah elephants (''Loxodonta africana'')|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=10|issue=1|page=13996|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-70682-y|pmid=32883968 |pmc=7471917 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1013996A }}</ref> The presence of older males appears to subdue the aggression and "deviant" behaviour of younger ones.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Slotow, R. |author2=van Dyk, G. |author3=Poole, J. |author4=Page, B. |author5=Klocke, A. |s2cid=136330 |year=2000|title=Older bull elephants control young males|journal=Nature|volume=408|issue=6811|pages=425–426|doi=10.1038/35044191|pmid=11100713|bibcode=2000Natur.408..425S}}</ref> The largest all-male groups can reach close to 150 individuals. Adult males and females come together to breed. Bulls will accompany family groups if a cow is in [[Estrous cycle|oestrous]].<ref name=Sukumar179>Sukumar, pp. 179–83.</ref>

===Sexual behaviour===
====Musth====
{{Main|Musth}}
[[File:2005-tusker-musth-crop.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Indian elephant bull in musth]]
Adult males enter a state of increased [[testosterone]] known as [[musth]]. In a population in southern India, males first enter musth at 15 years old, but it is not very intense until they are older than 25. At Amboseli, no bulls under 24 were found to be in musth, while half of those aged 25–35 and all those over 35 were. In some areas, there may be seasonal influences on the timing of musths. The main characteristic of a bull's musth is a fluid discharged from the [[Temporin|temporal gland]] that runs down the side of his face. Behaviours associated with musth include walking with a high and swinging head, nonsynchronous ear flapping, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling, and urinating in the [[penile sheath|sheath]]. The length of this varies between males of different ages and conditions, lasting from days to months.<ref name=Sukumar100 />

Males become extremely aggressive during musth. Size is the determining factor in [[Agonistic behaviour|agonistic]] encounters when the individuals have the same condition. In contests between musth and non-musth individuals, musth bulls win the majority of the time, even when the non-musth bull is larger. A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank. Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other. Agonistic encounters typically consist of threat displays, chases, and minor sparring. Rarely do they full-on fight.<ref name=Sukumar100>Sukumar, pp. 100–08.</ref> 

There is at least one documented case of [[Infanticide (zoology)|infanticide]] among Asian elephants at Dong Yai Wildlife Sanctuary, with the researchers describing it as most likely normal behaviour among aggressive musth elephants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wanghongsa |first1=Sawai |last2=Boonkird |first2=Kalyanee |title=On the incident of infanticide in wild elephants |journal=Wildlife Yearbook |date=2006 |volume=7 |pages=111–119}}</ref>

====Mating====
[[File:Elephantsmating.jpg|thumb|African elephant bull mating with a member of a female group]]
Elephants are [[Polygyny in animals|polygynous]] breeders,<ref>Sukumar, p. 89.</ref> and most [[Copulation (zoology)|copulations]] occur during rainfall.<ref name="Sukumar, p. 262">Sukumar, p. 262.</ref> An oestrous cow uses [[pheromone]]s in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate. A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the [[flehmen response]], which requires him to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and taste it with the [[vomeronasal organ]] at the roof of the mouth.<ref>Sukumar, pp. 98–99.</ref> The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks, with the [[follicular phase]] lasting 4–6 weeks and the [[luteal phase]] lasting 8–10 weeks. While most mammals have one surge of [[luteinizing hormone]] during the follicular phase, elephants have two. The first (or anovulatory) surge, appears to change the female's scent, signaling to males that she is in heat, but [[ovulation]] does not occur until the second (or ovulatory) surge.<ref>{{cite web|title=Elephant Reproduction Project: The Estrous Cycle of Elephants|publisher=Smithsonian National Zoo|access-date=8 October 2012|url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/scbi/ReproductiveScience/ElephantBreedRepro/EstrousCycle.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606110832/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/SCBI/ReproductiveScience/ElephantBreedRepro/EstrousCycle.cfm|archive-date=6 June 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Cows over 45–50 years of age are less fertile.<ref name=Kingdon53 />

Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate-guarding, where they follow oestrous females and defend them from other males.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Poole Joyce H | s2cid = 53150105 | year = 1989 | title = Mate guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222028670 | format = PDF | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 37 | pages = 842–849 | doi = 10.1016/0003-3472(89)90068-7 | access-date = 24 October 2018 | archive-date = 24 October 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181024231940/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222028670 | url-status = live }}</ref> Most mate-guarding is done by musth males, and females seek them out, particularly older ones.<ref>Sukumar, p. 113.</ref> Musth appears to signal to females the condition of the male, as weak or injured males do not have normal musths.<ref>Sukumar, p. 117.</ref> For young females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so her relatives stay nearby for comfort.<ref name=Shoshani106 /> During copulation, the male rests his trunk on the female.<ref>Kingdon, p. 69.</ref> The penis is mobile enough to move without the pelvis.<ref name="FowlerMikota2006">{{cite book|author1=Murray E. Fowler|author2=Susan K. Mikota|title=Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of Elephants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCpiZA61tyQC|year=2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-8138-0676-1|page=353|access-date=17 October 2020|archive-date=21 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321084756/https://books.google.com/books?id=oCpiZA61tyQC&q=elephant+penis+mating&pg=PA353|url-status=live}}</ref> Before mounting, it curves forward and upward. Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and does not involve [[pelvic thrust]]ing or an ejaculatory pause.<ref name=Estes>{{cite book|author=Estes, R.|title=The behavior guide to African mammals: including hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858/page/263 263–266]|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-08085-0}}</ref>

[[Homosexual behavior in animals#Elephants|Homosexual behaviour]] has been observed in both sexes. As in heterosexual interactions, this involves mounting. Male elephants sometimes stimulate each other by playfighting, and "championships" may form between old bulls and younger males. Female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity, where they engage in [[Animal sexual behaviour#Autoeroticism or masturbation|mutual masturbation]] with their trunks.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bagemihl, B.|year=1999|title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity|url=https://archive.org/details/biologicalexuber00bage|url-access=registration|publisher=St. Martin's Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologicalexuber00bage/page/427 427–430]|isbn=978-1-4668-0927-7}}</ref>

===Birth and development===
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|image1=African elephant, Dzanga Sangha, Central African Republic (18322370163).jpg|caption1=An African forest elephant mother with her calf
|image2=L'éléphanteau têtant sa mère.JPG|caption2=Asian elephant calf suckling}}
[[Gestation]] in elephants typically lasts between one and a half and two years and the female will not give birth again for at least four years.<ref>Sukumar, pp. 259–60.</ref> The relatively long pregnancy is supported by several [[corpus luteum]]s and gives the foetus more time to develop, particularly the brain and trunk.<ref name="pregnancy">{{cite journal|author1=Lueders, I.|author2=Niemuller, C. |author3=Rich, P. |author4=Gray, C. |author5=Hermes, R. |author6=Goeritz, F. |author7=Hildebrandt, T. B. |year=2012|title=Gestating for 22 months: luteal development and pregnancy maintenance in elephants|journal= Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=279|issue=1743|pages=3687–3696|pmid=22719030|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.1038|pmc= 3415912}}</ref> Births tend to take place during the wet season.<ref name="Sukumar, p. 262"/> Typically, only a single young is born, but twins sometimes occur.<ref name="pregnancy"/> Calves are born roughly {{convert|85|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall and with a weight of around {{convert|120|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Shoshani106>Moss, pp. 106–13.</ref> They are [[precocial]] and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd.<ref name=Sukumar126 /> A newborn calf will attract the attention of all the herd members. Adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks. For the first few days, the mother limits access to her young. [[Alloparenting]] – where a calf is cared for by someone other than its mother – takes place in some family groups. Allomothers are typically aged two to twelve years.<ref name=Shoshani106 />

For the first few days, the newborn is unsteady on its feet and needs its mother's help. It relies on touch, smell, and hearing, as its eyesight is less developed. With little coordination in its trunk, it can only flop it around which may cause it to trip. When it reaches its second week, the calf can walk with more balance and has more control over its trunk. After its first month, the trunk can grab and hold objects but still lacks sucking abilities, and the calf must bend down to drink. It continues to stay near its mother as it is still reliant on her. For its first three months, a calf relies entirely on its mother's milk, after which it begins to forage for vegetation and can use its trunk to collect water. At the same time, there is progress in lip and leg movements. By nine months, mouth, trunk, and foot coordination are mastered. Suckling bouts tend to last 2–4 min/hr for a calf younger than a year. After a year, a calf is fully capable of grooming, drinking, and feeding itself. It still needs its mother's milk and protection until it is at least two years old. Suckling after two years may improve growth, health, and fertility.<ref name=Sukumar126>Sukumar, pp. 126–29.</ref>

Play behaviour in calves differs between the sexes; females run or chase each other while males play-fight. The former are [[sexually mature]] by the age of nine years<ref name=Shoshani106 /> while the latter become mature around 14–15 years.<ref name=Sukumar179 /> Adulthood starts at about 18 years of age in both sexes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Elephant Life Cycle|publisher=ElephantsForever.co.za|url=http://www.elephantsforever.co.za/life-cycle.html|access-date=21 June 2014|archive-date=29 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140929112616/http://www.elephantsforever.co.za/life-cycle.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Elephant Life Cycle – Adolescence|publisher=ElephantsForever.co.za|url=http://www.elephantsforever.co.za/life-cycle-adolescence.html|access-date=21 June 2014|archive-date=30 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530064627/http://www.elephantsforever.co.za/life-cycle-adolescence.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Elephants have long lifespans, reaching 60–70 years of age.<ref name=Shoshani70 /> [[Lin Wang]], a captive male Asian elephant, lived for 86 years.<ref>{{cite news|title=War veteran elephant dies|work=BBC News|date=26 February 2003|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2800737.stm|access-date=8 January 2013|archive-date=12 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112161638/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2800737.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Communication===
<!-- Please do not add any more examples to this section. This subject already has its own article -->
{{main article|Elephant communication}}
{{multiple images
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|image1=Three elephant's curly kisses.jpg|caption1=Asian elephants greeting each other by inter-twining their trunks
|image2=Loxodonta africana oral rumble visualized with acoustic camera (25fps) - pone.0048907.s003.ogv|caption2=Low frequency rumble visualised with acoustic camera}}
Elephants communicate in various ways. Individuals greet one another by touching each other on the mouth, temporal glands, and genitals. This allows them to pick up chemical cues. Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to control younger ones. Touching is especially important for mother–calf communication. When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them. A calf will press against its mother's front legs to signal it wants to rest and will touch her breast or leg when it wants to suckle.<ref>Payne and Langbauer, p. 116.</ref>

Visual displays mostly occur in agonistic situations. Elephants will try to appear more threatening by raising their heads and spreading their ears. They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears, as well as tossing around dust and vegetation. They are usually bluffing when performing these actions. Excited elephants also raise their heads and spread their ears but additionally may raise their trunks. Submissive elephants will lower their heads and trunks, as well as flatten their ears against their necks, while those that are ready to fight will bend their ears in a V shape.<ref>Payne and Langbauer, pp. 119–20.</ref>

Elephants produce several vocalisations—some of which pass through the trunk<ref name=Shoshani120>Payne and Langbauer, pp. 120–21.</ref>—for both short and long range communication. This includes trumpeting, [[Bellow (sound)|bellowing]], [[roaring]], [[growling]], [[Bark (sound)|barking]], snorting, and [[Rumble (noise)|rumbling]].<ref name=Shoshani120/><ref>Sukumar, p. 141.</ref> Elephants can produce [[Infrasound|infrasonic]] rumbles.<ref name="infrasonic">{{cite journal| author1= Herbest, C. T.| author2 = Stoeger, A.| author3 = Frey, R.| author4 = Lohscheller, J.| author5 = Titze, I. R.| author6 = Gumpenberger, M.| author7 = Fitch, W. T.|s2cid=32792564|year=2012|title=How Low Can You Go? Physical Production Mechanism of Elephant Infrasonic Vocalizations|journal= Science|volume=337|issue=6094|pages=595–599|doi=10.1126/science.1219712|pmid=22859490|bibcode=2012Sci...337..595H}}</ref> For Asian elephants, these calls have a frequency of 14–24&nbsp;[[Hertz|Hz]], with [[sound pressure]] levels of 85–90&nbsp;[[Decibel|dB]] and last 10–15 seconds.<ref name="Payne">{{cite journal|author1=Payne, K. B. |author2=Langbauer, W. R. |author3=Thomas, E. M. |s2cid=1480496 |year=1986|title=Infrasonic calls of the Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus'')|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|volume=18|issue=4|pages=297–301|doi=10.1007/BF00300007|bibcode=1986BEcoS..18..297P }}</ref> For African elephants, calls range from 15 to 35&nbsp;Hz with sound pressure levels as high as 117&nbsp;dB, allowing communication for many kilometres, possibly over {{convert|10|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Larom">{{cite journal|author1=Larom, D.|author2=Garstang, M. |author3=Payne, K. |author4=Raspet, R. |author5=Lindeque, M. |year=1997|title=The influence of surface atmospheric conditions on the range and area reached by animal vocalizations|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=200|pages=421–431|pmid=9057305|url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/200/3/421.pdf|issue=Pt 3|doi=10.1242/jeb.200.3.421 }}</ref> Elephants are known to [[seismic communication|communicate with seismics]], vibrations produced by impacts on the earth's surface or acoustical waves that travel through it. An individual foot stomping or mock charging can create seismic signals that can be heard at travel distances of up to {{convert|32|km|mi|abbr=on}}. Seismic waveforms produced by rumbles travel {{convert|16|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=O'Connell-Rodwell, C. E.|author2=Wood, J. D. |author3=Rodwell, T. C. |author4=Puria, S. |author5=Partan, S. R. |author6=Keefe, R. |author7=Shriver, D. |author8=Arnason, B. T. |author9=Hart, L. A. |s2cid=33221888 |year=2006 |title=Wild elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') breeding herds respond to artificially transmitted seismic stimuli |journal=Behavioural and Ecological Sociobiology |volume=59 |pages=842–850 |doi=10.1007/s00265-005-0136-2 |url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/bec/papers/OConnellRodwell_4.16.07.pdf |issue=6 |bibcode=2006BEcoS..59..842O |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203071054/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/bec/papers/OConnellRodwell_4.16.07.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=O'Connell-Rodwell C. E. |author2=Arnason, B. |author3=Hart, L. A. |year=2000|title=Seismic properties of Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus'') vocalizations and locomotion|journal=Journal of the Acoustical Society of America|volume=108|issue=6|pages=3066–3072|pmid=11144599|doi=10.1121/1.1323460|bibcode=2000ASAJ..108.3066O}}</ref>

===Intelligence and cognition===
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{{Main|Elephant cognition}}
[[File:Insightful-Problem-Solving-in-an-Asian-Elephant-pone.0023251.s005.ogv|thumb|Elephant rolling a block to allow it to reach food]]
Elephants are among the most intelligent animals. They exhibit [[Mirror test|mirror self-recognition]], an indication of [[self-awareness]] and [[cognition]] that has also been demonstrated in some [[ape]]s and [[dolphin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Plotnik, J. M. |author2=de Waal, F. B. M. |author3=Reiss, D. |name-list-style=amp |year=2006|title=Self-recognition in an Asian elephant|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=103|issue=45|pages=17053–17057|doi=10.1073/pnas.0608062103|pmid=17075063 |bibcode = 2006PNAS..10317053P |pmc=1636577|doi-access=free }}</ref> One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs. This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re-tested with the same visual pairs a year later.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rensch, B.|year=1957|title=The intelligence of elephants|journal=Scientific American|volume=196|issue=2|pages=44–49|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0257-44|bibcode=1957SciAm.196b..44R}}</ref> Elephants are among the [[Tool use by animals|species known to use tools]]. An Asian elephant has been observed fine-tuning branches for use as [[Fly-killing device|flyswatters]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hart, B. J. |author2=Hart, L. A. |author3=McCory, M. |author4=Sarath, C. R. |s2cid=53184282 |year=2001|title=Cognitive behaviour in Asian elephants: use and modification of branches for fly switching|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=62|issue=5|pages=839–847|doi=10.1006/anbe.2001.1815}}</ref> Tool modification by these animals is not as advanced as that of [[Pan (genus)|chimpanzee]]s. Elephants are popularly thought of as having an excellent memory. This could have a factual basis; they possibly have [[cognitive map]]s which give them long lasting memories of their environment on a wide scale. Individuals may be able to remember where their family members are located.<ref name="cognition">{{cite journal|author1=Byrne, R. W.|author2=Bates, L.|author3=Moss C. J.|year=2009|title=Elephant cognition in primate perspective|journal= Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews|volume=4|pages=65–79|doi=10.3819/ccbr.2009.40009|df=dmy-all|doi-access=free|hdl=10023/1612|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Scientists debate the extent to which elephants feel [[emotion]]. They are attracted to the bones of their own kind, regardless of whether they are related.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=McComb, K. |author2=Baker, L. |author3=Moss, C. |year=2006|title=African elephants show high levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species|journal= Biology Letters|volume=2|issue=1|pages=26–28|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2005.0400|pmid=17148317|pmc=1617198}}</ref> As with chimpanzees and dolphins, a dying or dead elephant may elicit attention and aid from others, including those from other groups. This has been interpreted as expressing "concern";<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Douglas-Hamilton, I.|author2=Bhallaa, S.|author3=Wittemyera, G.|author4=Vollratha, F.|year=2006|title=Behavioural reactions of elephants towards a dying and deceased matriarch|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|volume=100|issue=1|pages=87–102|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2006.04.014|url=http://www.savetheelephants.org/files/pdf/publications/2006%20Douglas-Hamilton%20et%20al%20Behavioural%20reactions%20of%20elephants%20to%20a%20dying%20matriarch.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511045326/http://www.savetheelephants.org/files/pdf/publications/2006%20Douglas-Hamilton%20et%20al%20Behavioural%20reactions%20of%20elephants%20to%20a%20dying%20matriarch.pdf|archive-date=11 May 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> however, the ''Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour'' (1987) said that "one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion".<ref>{{cite book |title= When Elephants Weep: Emotional Lives of Animals|last= Masson|first= Jeffrey Moussaieff|author-link= Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson|author2=Susan McCarthy |year= 1996|publisher= Vintage|isbn= 978-0-09-947891-1 |page= 272}}</ref>