Editing Face perception (section)

== Face advantage in memory recall ==
During face perception, neural networks make connections with the brain to recall memories.<ref name="Mansour 2010">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Mansour|first=Jamal|author2=Lindsay, Roderick|title=Facial Recognition|encyclopedia=Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology|date=30 January 2010|volume=1–2|pages=1–2 |doi=10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0342|isbn=978-0-470-47921-6}}</ref>

According to the Seminal Model of face perception, there are three stages of face processing:<ref name="Bruce" /><ref name="Mansour 2010" />
* recognition of the face
* recall of memories and information linked with that face
* name recall

There are exceptions to this order. For example, names are recalled faster than semantic information in cases of highly familiar stimuli.<ref name="calderwood">{{cite journal|last=Calderwood|first=L|author2=Burton, A.M.|title=Children and adults recall the names of highly familiar faces faster than semantic information|journal=British Journal of Psychology|date=November 2006|volume=96|issue=4|pages=441–454|doi=10.1348/000712605X84124|pmid=17018182}}</ref> While the face is a powerful identifier, the voice also helps in recognition.<ref name="ellis">{{cite journal|last=Ellis|first=Hadyn|author2=Jones, Dylan|title=Intra- and Inter-modal repetition priming of familiar faces and voices|journal=British Journal of Psychology|date=February 1997|volume=88|issue=1|pages=143–156|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02625.x|pmid=9061895|last3=Mosdell|first3=Nick}}</ref><ref name="nadal">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Nadal|first=Lynn|title=Speaker Recognition|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science|year=2005|volume=4|pages=142–5}}</ref>

Research has tested if faces or voices make it easier to identify individuals and recall [[semantic memory]] and [[episodic memory]].<ref name="seed" /> These experiments looked at all three stages of face processing. The experiment showed two groups of celebrity and familiar faces or voices with a [[between-group design]] and asked the participants to recall information about them.<ref name="seed">{{cite journal|last=Bredart|first=S.|author2=Barsics, C.|title=Recalling Semantic and Episodic Information From Faces and Voices: A Face Advantage|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=3 December 2012|volume=21|issue=6|pages=378–381|doi=10.1177/0963721412454876|hdl=2268/135794 |s2cid=145337404|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The participants were first asked if the stimulus was familiar. If they answered yes then they were asked for information (semantic memory) and memories (episodic memory) that fit the face or voice presented. These experiments demonstrated the phenomenon of face advantage and how it persists through follow-up studies.<ref name="seed" />

===Recognition-performance issue===
After the first experiments on the advantage of faces over voices in memory recall, errors and gaps were found in the methods used.<ref name=seed />

For one, there was not a clear face advantage for the recognition stage of face processing. Participants showed a familiarity-only response to voices more often than faces.<ref name="Hanley 2009 830–839">{{cite journal|last=Hanley|first=J. Richard|author2=Damjanovic, Ljubica|title=It is more difficult to retrieve a familiar person's name and occupation from their voice than from their blurred face|journal=Memory|date=November 2009|volume=17|issue=8|pages=830–9|doi=10.1080/09658210903264175|pmid=19882434|s2cid=27070912}}</ref> In other words, when voices were recognized (about 60–70% of the time) they were much harder to recall biographical information but very good at being recognized.<ref name="seed" /> The results were looked at as [[remember versus know judgements]]. A lot more remember results (or familiarity) occurred with voices, and more know (or memory recall) responses happened with faces.<ref name="nadal" /> This phenomenon persists through experiments dealing with criminal line-ups in prisons. Witnesses are more likely to say that a suspect's voice sounded familiar than his/her face even though they cannot remember anything about the suspect.<ref name="yarmey">{{cite journal|last1=Yarmey|first1=Daniel A.|title=Face and Voice Identifications in showups and lineups|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|date=1 January 1994|volume=8|issue=5|pages=453–464|doi=10.1002/acp.2350080504|last2=Yarmey|first2=A. Linda|last3=Yarmey|first3=Meagan J.}}</ref> This discrepancy is due to a larger amount of guesswork and false alarms that occur with voices.<ref name="nadal" />

To give faces a similar ambiguity to that of voices, the face stimuli were blurred in the follow-up experiment.<ref name="Hanley 2009 830–839"/> This experiment followed the same procedures as the first, presenting two groups with sets of stimuli made up of half celebrity faces and half unfamiliar faces.<ref name=seed /> The only difference was that the face stimuli were blurred so that detailed features could not be seen. Participants were then asked to say if they recognized the person, if they could recall specific biographical information about them, and finally if they knew the person's name. The results were completely different from those of the original experiment, supporting the view that there were problems in the first experiment's methods.<ref name=seed /> According to the results of the followup, the same amount of information and memory could be recalled through voices and faces, dismantling the face advantage. However, these results are flawed and premature because other methodological issues in the experiment still needed to be fixed.<ref name=seed />

===Content of speech===
The process of controlling the content of speech extract has proven to be more difficult than the elimination of non facial cues in photographs.<ref name=seed />

Thus the findings of experiments that did not control this factor lead to misleading conclusions regarding the voice recognition over the face recognition.<ref name="seed" /> For example, in an experiment it was found that 40% of the time participants could easily pair the celebrity-voice with their occupation just by guessing.<ref name="Hanley 2009 830–839" /> In order to eliminate these errors, experimenters removed parts of the voice samples that could possibly give clues to the identity of the target, such as catchphrases.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Van Lancker|first=Diana|author2=Kreiman, Jody|title=Voice discrimination and recognition are separate abilities|journal=Neuropsychologia|date=January 1987|volume=25|issue=5|pages=829–834|doi=10.1016/0028-3932(87)90120-5|pmid=3431677|s2cid=15240833}}</ref> Even after controlling the voice samples as well as the face samples (using blurred faces), studies have shown that semantic information can be more accessible to retrieve when individuals are recognizing faces than voices.<ref name="Barsics & Bredart 2011">{{cite journal|last=Barsics|first=Catherine|author2=Brédart, Serge|title=Recalling episodic information about personally known faces and voices|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|date=June 2011|volume=20|issue=2|pages=303–8|doi=10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.008|pmid=20381380|s2cid=40812033}}</ref>

Another technique to control the content of the speech extracts is to present the faces and voices of personally familiar individuals, like the participant's teachers or neighbors, instead of the faces and voices of celebrities.<ref name=seed /> In this way alike words are used for the speech extracts.<ref name=seed /> For example, the familiar targets are asked to read exactly the same scripted speech for their voice extracts. The results showed again that semantic information is easier to retrieve when individuals are recognizing faces than voices.<ref name=seed />

===Frequency-of-exposure issue===
Another factor that has to be controlled in order for the results to be reliable is the frequency of exposure.<ref name=seed />

If we take the example of celebrities, people are exposed to celebrities' faces more often than their voices because of the mass media.<ref name="seed" /> Through magazines, newspapers and the Internet, individuals are exposed to celebrities' faces without their voices on an everyday basis rather than their voices without their faces.<ref name="seed" /> Thus, someone could argue that for all of the experiments that were done until now the findings were a result of the frequency of exposure to the faces of celebrities rather than their voices.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Ethofer|editor2=Belin Pascal|editor3=Salvatore Campanella|editor-first=Thomas|title=Integrating face and voice in person perception|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4614-3584-6|date=21 August 2012}}</ref>

To overcome this problem researchers decided to use personally familiar individuals as stimuli instead of celebrities.<ref name=seed /> Personally familiar individuals, such as participant's teachers, are for the most part heard as well as seen.<ref name="barsics and bredart and hanley 2009">{{cite journal|last1=Brédart|first1=Serge|last2=Barsics|first2=Catherine|last3=Hanley|first3=Rick|title=Recalling semantic information about personally known faces and voices|journal=European Journal of Cognitive Psychology|date=November 2009|volume=21|issue=7|pages=1013–21|doi=10.1080/09541440802591821|hdl=2268/27809|s2cid=1042153|url=http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/27809|access-date=5 February 2019|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602121625/https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/27809|url-status=live|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Studies that used this type of control also demonstrated the face advantage.<ref name="barsics and bredart and hanley 2009"/> Students were able to retrieve semantic information more readily when recognizing their teachers faces (both normal and blurred) rather than their voices.<ref name="Barsics & Bredart 2011" />

However, researchers over the years have found an even more effective way to control not only the frequency of exposure but also the content of the speech extracts, the [[Learning|associative learning]] paradigm.<ref name=seed /> Participants are asked to link semantic information as well as names with pre-experimentally unknown voices and faces.<ref name="barsics and bredart 2012b">{{cite journal|last1=Barsics|first1=Catherine|last2=Brédart|first2=Serge|title=Recalling semantic information about newly learned faces and voices|journal=Memory|date=July 2012|volume=20|issue=5|pages=527–534|doi=10.1080/09658211.2012.683012|pmid=22646520|s2cid=23728924 }}</ref><ref name="Associative learning paradigm">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Learning.|url=http://www.credoreference.com/entry/estinsects/learning|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Insects.|publisher=Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology|access-date=6 December 2013|date=|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602121638/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/estinsects/learning/0|url-status=live}}</ref> In a current experiment that used this paradigm, a name and a profession were given together with, accordingly, a voice, a face or both to three participant groups.<ref name="barsics and bredart 2012b" /> The associations described above were repeated four times.<ref name="barsics and bredart 2012b" />

The next step was a [[Recall (memory)|cued recall]] task in which every stimulus that was learned in the previous phase was introduced and participants were asked to tell the profession and the name for every stimulus.<ref name="barsics and bredart 2012b" /><ref name="cued recall task">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Memory, Explicit and Implicit.|url=http://www.credoreference.com/entry/esthumanbrain/memory_explicit_and_implicit|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Human Brain.|publisher=Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology|access-date=6 December 2013|date=|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602121639/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/esthumanbrain/memory_explicit_and_implicit/0|url-status=live}}</ref> Again, the results showed that semantic information can be more accessible to retrieve when individuals are recognizing faces than voices even when the frequency of exposure was controlled.<ref name="seed" /><ref name="barsics and bredart 2012b" />

===Extension to episodic memory and explanation for existence===
[[Episodic memory]] is our ability to remember specific, previously experienced events.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia<!-- Citation bot bypass-->|year=2005|title=Episodic Memory, Computational Models of|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science|publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/0470018860.s00444 |first=Kenneth A. |last=Norman}}</ref>

In recognition of faces as it pertains to episodic memory, there has been shown to be activation in the left lateral prefrontal cortex, [[parietal lobe]], and the left medial frontal/anterior cingulate cortex.<ref name="Leube 2003 97–101">{{cite journal|last=Leube|first=Dirk T.|author2=Erb, Michael|author3=Grodd, Wolfgang|author4=Bartels, Mathias|author5= Kircher, Tilo T.J.|title=Successful episodic memory retrieval of newly learned faces activates a left fronto-parietal network|journal=Cognitive Brain Research|date=December 2003|volume=18|issue=1|pages=97–101|doi=10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.09.008|pmid=14659501}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hofer|first=Alex|author2=Siedentopf, Christian M.|author3=Ischebeck, Anja|author4=Rettenbacher, Maria A.|author5=Verius, Michael|author6=Golaszewski, Stefan M.|author7=Felber, Stephan|author8= Fleischhacker, W. Wolfgang|title=Neural substrates for episodic encoding and recognition of unfamiliar faces|journal=Brain and Cognition|date=March 2007|volume=63|issue=2|pages=174–181|doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2006.11.005|pmid=17207899|s2cid=42077795}}</ref> It was also found that a left lateralization during episodic memory retrieval in the parietal cortex correlated strongly with success in retrieval.<ref name="Leube 2003 97–101" /> This may possibly be due to the hypothesis that the link between face recognition and episodic memory were stronger than those of voice and episodic memory.<ref name="Hanley 2009 830–839" /> This hypothesis can also be supported by the existence of specialized face recognition devices thought to be located in the temporal lobes.<ref name="Leube 2003 97–101" /><ref>{{cite encyclopedia<!-- Citation bot bypass-->|year=2005|title= Face Perception, Neural Basis of|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science|publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/0470018860.s00330 |first=Shlomo |last=Bentin }}</ref>

There is also evidence of the existence of two separate neural systems for face recognition: one for familiar faces and another for newly learned faces.<ref name="Leube 2003 97–101" /> One explanation for this link between face recognition and episodic memory is that since face recognition is a major part of human existence, the brain creates a link between the two in order to be better able to communicate with others.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia<!-- Citation bot bypass-->|year=2005|title=Face Perception, Psychology of|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science|publisher=Wiley |first1=Alice J. |last=O'Toole |doi=10.1002/0470018860.s00535}}</ref>

[[File:The-three-layer-model-of-self-related-cognition-.jpg|thumb|Three-layer model of self-cognition developed by Motoaki Sugiura]]