Editing Knowledge (section)

== In various disciplines ==
=== Religion ===
{{See also|Desacralization of knowledge|Resacralization of knowledge}}
Knowledge plays a central role in many religions. Knowledge claims about the [[existence of God]] or [[religious doctrine]]s about how each one should live their lives are found in almost every culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Evidentialist Objection to Belief in God}}</ref> However, such knowledge claims are often controversial and are commonly rejected by [[Religious skepticism|religious skeptics]] and [[atheists]].<ref name=Penelhum1971>{{harvnb|Penelhum|1971|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QQU9AAAAIAAJ 1. Faith, Scepticism and Philosophy]}}</ref> The [[Religious epistemology|epistemology of religion]] is the field of inquiry studying whether [[belief in God]] and in other religious doctrines is [[rational]] and amounts to knowledge.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Forrest|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Simplifications}} }}</ref> One important view in this field is [[evidentialism]], which states that belief in religious doctrines is justified if it is supported by sufficient evidence. Suggested examples of evidence for religious doctrines include [[religious experience]]s such as direct contact with the divine or inner testimony when hearing God's voice.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Evidentialist Objection to Belief in God}} | {{harvnb|Forrest|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Rejection of Enlightenment Evidentialism}} | {{harvnb|Dougherty|2014|pp=97–98}} }}</ref> Evidentialists often reject that belief in religious doctrines amounts to knowledge based on the claim that there is not sufficient evidence.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=§ 2. The Evidentialist Objection to Belief in God}} | {{harvnb|Forrest|2021|loc=Lead Section, 2. The Rejection of Enlightenment Evidentialism}} }}</ref> A famous saying in this regard is due to Bertrand Russell. When asked how he would justify his lack of belief in God when facing his judgment after death, he replied "Not enough evidence, God! Not enough evidence."<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=§ 2. The Evidentialist Objection to Belief in God}}</ref>

However, religious teachings about the existence and nature of God are not always seen as knowledge claims by their defenders. Some explicitly state that the proper attitude towards such doctrines is not knowledge but [[faith]]. This is often combined with the assumption that these doctrines are true but cannot be fully understood by reason or verified through rational inquiry. For this reason, it is claimed that one should accept them even though they do not amount to knowledge.<ref name=Penelhum1971/> Such a view is reflected in a famous saying by Immanuel Kant where he claims that he "had to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith."<ref>{{harvnb|Stevenson|2003|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/kantian-review/article/abs/opinion-belief-or-faith-and-knowledge/9519081ED9BAE7811D2B9670340AD7E1 72–73]}}</ref>

Distinct religions often differ from each other concerning the doctrines they proclaim as well as their understanding of the role of knowledge in religious practice.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Paden|2009|pp=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203868768-19/comparative-religion-william-paden 225–227]}} | {{harvnb|Paden|2005|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> In both the Jewish and the Christian traditions, knowledge plays a role in the [[fall of man]], in which Adam and Eve were expelled from the [[Garden of Eden]]. Responsible for this fall was that they ignored God's command and ate from the [[Tree of the knowledge of good and evil|tree of knowledge]], which gave them the knowledge of good and evil. This is seen as a rebellion against God since this knowledge belongs to God and it is not for humans to decide what is right or wrong.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carson|Cerrito|2003|p=164}} | {{harvnb|Delahunty|Dignen|2012|p=365}} | {{harvnb|Blayney|1769|loc=[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Genesis#3:22 Genesis]}} }}</ref> In the Christian literature, knowledge is seen as one of the [[seven gifts of the Holy Spirit]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Legge|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qg6DDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA181 181]}} | {{harvnb|Van Nieuwenhove|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-rTRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA395 395]}} }}</ref> In [[Islam]], "the Knowing" (''al-ʿAlīm'') is one of the [[Names of God in the Qur'an|99 names]] reflecting distinct attributes of [[God in Islam|God]]. The [[Qur'an]] asserts that knowledge comes from [[Allah]] and the acquisition of knowledge is encouraged in the [[Hadith|teachings of Muhammad]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Campo|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA515 515]}} | {{harvnb|Swartley|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gLi2X1rzeZIC&pg=PA63 63]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Saraswati - Raja Ravi Varma.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Oil painting showing Saraswati|[[Saraswati]] is the goddess of knowledge and the arts in Hinduism.]]
In Buddhism, knowledge that leads to [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|liberation]] is called ''vijjā''. It contrasts with ''[[avijjā]]'' or ignorance, which is understood as the root of all [[Duḥkha|suffering]]. This is often explained in relation to the claim that humans suffer because they crave things that are [[Impermanence#Buddhism|impermanent]]. The ignorance of the impermanent nature of things is seen as the factor responsible for this craving.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Burton|2002|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400322 326–327]}} | {{harvnb|Chaudhary|2017|pp=202–203}} | {{harvnb|Chaudhary|2017a|pp=1373–1374}} }}</ref> The central goal of Buddhist practice is to stop suffering. This aim is to be achieved by understanding and practicing the teaching known as the [[Four Noble Truths]] and thereby overcoming ignorance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chaudhary|2017|pp=202–203}} | {{harvnb|Chaudhary|2017a|pp=1373–1374}} }}</ref> Knowledge plays a key role in the classical path of Hinduism known as ''[[Jnana yoga|jñāna yoga]]'' or "path of knowledge". It aims to achieve oneness with the divine by fostering an understanding of the self and its relation to [[Brahman]] or ultimate reality.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2006|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC jnana]}} | {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2006|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC Bhagavad Gita]}} }}</ref>

=== Anthropology ===
The ''anthropology of knowledge'' is a multi-disciplinary field of inquiry.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}} | {{harvnb|Boyer|2007|loc=1. Of Dialectical Germans and Dialectical Ethnographers: Notes from an Engagement with Philosophy}} }}</ref> It studies how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and communicated.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|2010|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40606072 S193–S202]}}</ref> Special interest is given to how knowledge is reproduced and changes in relation to social and cultural circumstances.<ref name=Allwood2013>{{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}}</ref> In this context, the term ''knowledge'' is used in a very broad sense, roughly equivalent to terms like ''understanding'' and ''culture''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}} | {{harvnb|Barth|2002|p=1}} }}</ref> This means that the forms and reproduction of understanding are studied irrespective of their [[truth value]]. In epistemology, by contrast, knowledge is usually restricted to forms of true belief. The main focus in [[anthropology]] is on [[Empirical evidence|empirical observations]] of how people ascribe truth values to meaning contents, like when affirming an assertion, even if these contents are false.<ref name=Allwood2013/> This also includes practical components: knowledge is what is employed when interpreting and acting on the world and involves diverse phenomena, such as feelings, embodied skills, information, and concepts. It is used to understand and anticipate events to prepare and react accordingly.<ref>{{harvnb|Barth|2002|pp=1–2}}</ref>

The reproduction of knowledge and its changes often happen through some form of communication used to [[Knowledge transfer|transfer knowledge]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}} | {{harvnb|Cohen|2010|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40606072 S193–S202]}} }}</ref> This includes face-to-face discussions and online communications as well as seminars and rituals. An important role in this context falls to institutions, like university departments or scientific journals in the academic context.<ref name=Allwood2013/> Anthropologists of knowledge understand traditions as knowledge that has been reproduced within a society or geographic region over several generations. They are interested in how this reproduction is affected by external influences. For example, societies tend to interpret knowledge claims found in other societies and incorporate them in a modified form.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}} | {{harvnb|Barth|2002|pp=1–4 }} | {{harvnb|Kuruk|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ia7ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 25]}} }}</ref>

Within a society, people belonging to the same social group usually understand things and organize knowledge in similar ways to one another. In this regard, social identities play a significant role: people who associate themselves with similar identities, like age-influenced, professional, religious, and ethnic identities, tend to embody similar forms of knowledge. Such identities concern both how a person sees themselves, for example, in terms of the ideals they pursue, as well as how other people see them, such as the expectations they have toward the person.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}} | {{harvnb|Hansen|1982|p=193}} }}</ref>

=== Sociology ===
{{main|Sociology of knowledge}}
The sociology of knowledge is the subfield of sociology that studies how thought and society are related to each other.<ref name="auto1">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Coser|2009|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/sociology-knowledge Knowledge, Sociology of]}} | {{harvnb|Tufari|2003|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4C0KAQAAMAAJ Knowledge, Sociology of]}} | {{harvnb|Scheler|Stikkers|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pFqrO7Lxiw4C&pg=PA23 23]}} }}</ref> Like the anthropology of knowledge, it understands "knowledge" in a wide sense that encompasses philosophical and political ideas, religious and ideological doctrines, folklore, law, and technology. The sociology of knowledge studies in what sociohistorical circumstances knowledge arises, what consequences it has, and on what existential conditions it depends. The examined conditions include physical, demographic, economic, and sociocultural factors. For instance, philosopher [[Karl Marx]] claimed that the dominant ideology in a society is a product of and changes with the underlying socioeconomic conditions.<ref name="auto1"/> Another example is found in forms of decolonial scholarship that claim that colonial powers are responsible for the [[hegemony]] of Western knowledge systems. They seek a [[decolonization of knowledge]] to undermine this hegemony.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lee|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtArDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67 67]}} | {{harvnb|Dreyer|2017|pp=1–7}} }}</ref> A related issue concerns the link between knowledge and [[Power (social and political)|power]], in particular, the extent to which knowledge is power. The philosopher [[Michel Foucault]] explored this issue and examined how knowledge and the institutions responsible for it control people through what he termed [[biopower]] by shaping societal norms, values, and regulatory mechanisms in fields like [[psychiatry]], medicine, and the [[penal system]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bosančić|2018|pp=186–188}} | {{harvnb|Gutting|Oksala|2022|loc=§ 3.1 Histories of Madness and Medicine, § 3.4 History of the Prison, § 3.5 History of Modern Sexuality}} | {{harvnb|Power|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_f3JAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT32 32–33]}} | {{harvnb|Appelrouth|Edles|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EUQT47IqVdgC&pg=PA643 643]}}}}</ref>

A central subfield is the [[sociology of scientific knowledge]], which investigates the social factors involved in the production and validation of scientific knowledge. This encompasses examining the impact of the [[Funding of science|distribution of resources]] and rewards on the scientific process, which leads some areas of research to flourish while others languish. Further topics focus on selection processes, such as [[Scholarly peer review|how academic journals decide]] whether to publish an article and how academic institutions recruit researchers, and the general values and norms characteristic of the [[Scientist|scientific profession]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bloor|2004|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-1986-9_25 919–920]}} | {{harvnb|Pinch|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0qagBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT14 14]}} | {{harvnb|Kitchener|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T7uYSFSxxVkC&pg=PA68 68]}} }}</ref>

=== Others ===
[[Formal epistemology]] studies knowledge using formal tools found in mathematics and logic.<ref>{{harvnb|Weisberg|2021}}</ref> An important issue in this field concerns the epistemic principles of knowledge. These are rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. The transparency principle, also referred to as the ''luminosity of knowledge'', states that it is impossible for someone to know something without knowing that they know it.{{efn|This principle implies that if Heike knows that today is Monday, then she also knows that she knows that today is Monday.}}<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=§ 3.3 Internal Vs. External}} | {{harvnb|Das|Salow|2018|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/DASTAT-2 3–4]}} | {{harvnb|Dokic|Égré|2009|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/DOKMFE-2 1–2]}} }}</ref> According to the conjunction principle, if a person has justified beliefs in two separate propositions, then they are also justified in believing the [[Logical conjunction|conjunction]] of these two propositions. In this regard, if Bob has a justified belief that dogs are animals and another justified belief that cats are animals, then he is justified to believe the conjunction that both dogs and cats are animals. Other commonly discussed principles are the closure principle and the evidence transfer principle.<ref>{{harvnb|Klein|1998|loc=§ 7. Epistemic Principles}}</ref>

[[Knowledge management]] is the process of creating, gathering, storing, and sharing knowledge. It involves the management of information assets that can take the form of [[document]]s, [[database]]s, policies, and procedures. It is of particular interest in the field of business and [[organizational development]], as it directly impacts [[decision-making]] and [[strategic planning]]. Knowledge management efforts are often employed to increase [[operational efficiency]] in attempts to gain a [[competitive advantage]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lengnick-Hall|Lengnick-Hall|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t8RLT77_VHMC&pg=PA85 85]}} | {{harvnb|Awad|Ghaziri|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qzREBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT28 28]}} }}</ref> Key processes in the field of knowledge management are knowledge creation, [[Data storage|knowledge storage]], [[knowledge sharing]], and knowledge application. Knowledge creation is the first step and involves the production of new information. Knowledge storage can happen through media like books, audio recordings, film, and digital databases. Secure storage facilitates knowledge sharing, which involves the transmission of information from one person to another. For the knowledge to be beneficial, it has to be put into practice, meaning that its insights should be used to either improve existing practices or implement new ones.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Choo|2002|pp=503–504}} | {{harvnb|Witzel|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=riM-iG8Ib64C&pg=PT252 252]}} | {{harvnb|McNabb|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3W1sBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT41 41]}} }}</ref>

[[Knowledge representation]] is the process of storing organized information, which may happen using various forms of media and also includes information stored in the mind.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sonneveld|Loening|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BbBBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 188]}} | {{harvnb|Markman|2006|p=1}} | {{harvnb|Shapiro|2006|p=1}} }}</ref> It plays a key role in the [[artificial intelligence]], where the term is used for the field of inquiry that studies how computer systems can efficiently represent information. This field investigates how different [[data structure]]s and interpretative procedures can be combined to achieve this goal and which formal languages can be used to express knowledge items. Some efforts in this field are directed at developing general languages and systems that can be employed in a great variety of domains while others focus on an optimized representation method within one specific domain. Knowledge representation is closely linked to [[automatic reasoning]] because the purpose of knowledge representation formalisms is usually to construct a [[knowledge base]] from which [[inference]]s are drawn.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Castilho|Lopes|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aOeAoTz24jUC&pg=PA287 287]}} | {{harvnb|Kandel|1992|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9r4dh4pdQNkC&pg=PA5 5–6]}} | {{harvnb|Cai|Liu|Chen|Wang|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x30xEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]}} }}</ref> Influential knowledge base formalisms include logic-based systems, [[rule-based system]]s, [[semantic networks]], and [[Frame (artificial intelligence)|frames]]. Logic-based systems rely on [[formal language]]s employed in [[logic]] to represent knowledge. They use linguistic devices like individual terms, [[Predicate (mathematical logic)|predicates]], and [[Quantifier (logic)|quantifiers]]. For rule-based systems, each unit of information is expressed using a conditional production rule of the form "if A then B". Semantic nets model knowledge as a [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|graph]] consisting of [[Vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] to represent facts or concepts and edges to represent the relations between them. Frames provide complex taxonomies to group items into classes, subclasses, and instances.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Castilho|Lopes|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aOeAoTz24jUC&pg=PA287 287–288]}} | {{harvnb|Kandel|1992|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9r4dh4pdQNkC&pg=PA5 5–6]}} | {{harvnb|Akerkar|Sajja|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tj8r3A-0dZkC&pg=PA71 71–72]}} }}</ref>

[[Pedagogy]] is the study of [[teaching methods]] or the art of teaching.{{efn|The exact definition of the term is disputed.<ref>{{harvnb|Watkins|Mortimore|1999|pp=1–3}}</ref>}} It explores [[Learning theory (education)|how learning takes place]] and which techniques teachers may employ to transmit knowledge to students and improve their learning experience while keeping them motivated.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Watkins|Mortimore|1999|pp=1–3}} | {{harvnb|Payne|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=abocsyBzTMMC&pg=PA264 264]}} | {{harvnb|Gabriel|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PreYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}} }}</ref> There is a great variety of teaching methods and the most effective approach often depends on factors like the subject matter and the age and proficiency level of the learner.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|pp=81–85}} | {{harvnb|Murphy|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BjqQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5, 19–20]}} }}</ref> In teacher-centered education, the teacher acts as the authority figure imparting information and directing the learning process. [[Student-centered learning|Student-centered approaches]] give a more active role to students with the teacher acting as a coach to facilitate the process.<ref>{{harvnb|Emaliana|2017|pp=59–61}}</ref> Further methodological considerations encompass the difference between group work and individual learning and the use of instructional media and other forms of [[educational technology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Alexander|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MNvQENpKy2AC&pg=PA109 109–110]}} | {{harvnb|Bukoye|2019|p=1395}} }}</ref>