Editing Management (section)

==History==
Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late [[modernity]]) conceptualization.<ref>Waring, S.P., 2016, Taylorism transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945. UNC Press Books.</ref> On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history – only harbingers (such as [[Steward (office)|stewards]]). Others, however, detect management-like thought among ancient Sumerian traders and the builders of the pyramids of [[ancient Egypt]]. Slave owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting and motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial [[business|enterprises]], given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, [[innovation]]s such as the spread of [[Arabic numeral system|Arabic numerals]] (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of [[Double-entry bookkeeping system|double-entry book-keeping]] (1494) provided [[management tool|tools]] for management assessment, planning and control.

* An organization is more stable if members have the right to express their differences and solve their conflicts within it.
* While one person can begin an organization, "it is lasting when it is left in the care of many and when many desire to maintain it".
* A weak manager can follow a strong one, but not another weak one, and maintain authority.
* A manager seeking to change an established organization "should retain at least a shadow of the ancient customs".

With the changing workplaces of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the 18th and 19th centuries, [[military]] theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular [[factory|factories]].<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Giddens
| first1                = Anthony
| author1-link          = Anthony Giddens, Baron Giddens
| title                 = A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=MVp0tMD_5f0C
| series                = Social and Politic Theory from Polity Press
| volume                = 1
| publisher             = University of California Press
| publication-date      = 1981
| page                  = 125
| isbn                  = 978-0-520-04490-6
| access-date            = 2013-12-29
| quote                 = In the army barracks, and in the mass co-ordination of men on the battlefield (epitomized by the military innovations of Prince Maurice of Orange and Nassau in the sixteenth century) are to be found the prototype of the regimentation of the factory – as both Marx and Weber noted.
| year                = 1981
}}
</ref>

Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the Industrial Revolution, it made sense for most [[ownership|owners]] of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with the growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties, or groups of [[shareholder]]s) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.

===Early writing===
The field of management originated in ancient China,<ref name=" Ewan Ferlie p.30">Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt (2005) ''The Oxford Handbook of Public Management'', p.30.</ref> including possibly the first highly centralized [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an [[meritocracy|administration based on merit]] through [[Imperial examination|testing]].<ref name="APHq">Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. ''One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed' in the imperial bureaucracy of China.''
*{{cite book|last1=Tan|first1=Chung|first2=Yinzheng|last2=Geng|title=India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations|year=2005|publisher=University of Michigan Press|page=128|quote=China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy"}}
*{{cite book|last=Konner|first=Melvin|title=Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews|url=https://archive.org/details/unsettledanthrop00konn|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Viking Compass|page=[https://archive.org/details/unsettledanthrop00konn/page/217 217]|isbn=9780670032440|quote=China is the world's oldest meritocracy}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Tucker|first1=Mary Evelyn|year=2009|title=Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia|journal=Ecology and the Environment: Perspectives from the Humanities|page=51|quote=To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics}}</ref> Some theorists have cited [[:Category: Ancient military books|ancient military texts]] as providing lessons for civilian managers. For example, Chinese general [[Sun Tzu]] in his 6th-century BC work ''[[The Art of War]]'' recommends{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p19">{{cite book
 | last = Gomez-Mejia
 | first = Luis R.
 |author2=David B. Balkin |author3=Robert L. Cardy
 | title = Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition
 | publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]]
 | year = 2008
 | location = New York
 | page = 19
 | isbn = 978-0-07-302743-2}}</ref>{{qn|date=July 2018}} The writings of influential [[Chinese Legalist]] philosopher [[Shen Buhai]] may be considered{{by whom|date=August 2017}} to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration.<ref>Creel, 1974 pp. 4–5 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.</ref><ref>Creel, What Is Taoism?, 94
* Creel, 1974 p.4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.
* Creel 1964: 155–6
* Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
* Paul R. Goldin, p.16 Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_</ref> American philosopher [[Herrlee G. Creel]] and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century.<ref>Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt 2005 p.30, ''The Oxford Handbook of Public Management''</ref><ref>Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. "Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration", ''Journal of Chinese Philosophy'' Volume 1.</ref><ref>Creel, "The Origins of Statecraft in China, I", ''The Western Chou Empire'', Chicago, pp.9–27</ref><ref>Otto B. Van der Sprenkel, "Max Weber on China", ''History and Theory'' '''3''' (1964), 357.</ref>  Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in [[Guangzhou]], argued in his ''Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China'' (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution [[meritocratic]].<ref name="Bodde"/> Influenced by the ancient Chinese [[imperial examination]], the [[Northcote–Trevelyan Report]] of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase".<ref>[http://www.civilservant.org.uk/northcotetrevelyan.pdf Full text of the Northcote-Trevelyan Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222072511/http://www.civilservant.org.uk/northcotetrevelyan.pdf |date=22 December 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Bodde">{{cite web|last=Bodde|first=Derke|title=China: A Teaching Workbook|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_ideas.htm|publisher=Columbia University}}</ref> This led to implementation of [[Her Majesty's Civil Service]] as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.<ref>{{cite news|last=Walker|first=David|title=Fair game|work=The Guardian|date=2003-07-09|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/jul/09/publicsector.guardiansocietysupplement|access-date =2003-07-09|location=London, UK}}</ref> Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system. [[Voltaire]] claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and [[François Quesnay]] advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mark W. Huddleston |last2=William W. Boyer |title=The Higher Civil Service in the United States: Quest for Reform |date=1996 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Pre |isbn=0822974738 |page=15}}</ref> French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.<ref name=rung>{{cite book |last1=Rung |first1=Margaret C. |title=Servants of the State: Managing Diversity & Democracy in the Federal Workforce, 1933-1953 |date=2002 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=0820323624 |pages=8,200–201 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ucVgkbmqynUC}}</ref>

Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced "[[mirrors for princes]]" books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern. [[Plato]] described job specialization in 350 BC, and [[Alfarabi]] listed several leadership traits in AD 900.<ref>Griffin, Ricky W. CUSTOM Management: Principles and Practices, International Edition, 11th Edition. Cengage Learning UK, 08/2014</ref> Other examples include the Indian ''[[Arthashastra]]'' by [[Chanakya]] (written around 300 BC), and ''[[The Prince]]'' by Italian author
[[Niccolò Machiavelli]] ({{circa|1515}}).<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20" />

{{further|Mirrors for princes}}

Written in 1776 by [[Adam Smith]], a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Ethics|moral philosopher]], ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' discussed efficient organization of work through [[division of labour]].<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20">{{cite book
 | last = Gomez-Mejia
 | first = Luis R.
 |author2=David B. Balkin |author3=Robert L. Cardy
 | title = Management: People, Performance, Change
 | edition = 3
 | publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]]
 | year = 2008
 | location = New York
 | page = 20
 | isbn = 978-0-07-302743-2
}}
</ref>
Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of [[pin (device)|pins]]. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in the manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled the production of 48,000 pins per day.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20" />{{qn|date=August 2017}}

===19th century===
Classical economists such as [[Adam Smith]] (1723–1790) and [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to [[resource allocation]], [[production (economics)]], and [[pricing]] issues. About the same time, innovators like [[Eli Whitney]] (1765–1825), [[James Watt]] (1736–1819), and [[Matthew Boulton]] (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as [[standardization]], [[quality control|quality-control]] procedures, [[cost accounting|cost-accounting]], interchangeability of parts, and [[plan|work-planning]]. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-[[mass production]]<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Rosenthal
 | first1 = Caitlin
 | author-link= Caitlin Rosenthal
 | title = Accounting for Slavery: Masters and Management
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2eBjDwAAQBAJ
 | publisher = Harvard University Press
 | date = 2018
 | isbn = 9780674988576
 | access-date = 3 October 2020
}}
</ref>
before [[wage slavery]] eclipsed chattel slavery.

Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century.<ref>
{{cite book
| last                  = Khurana
| first                 = Rakesh
| author-link            = Rakesh Khurana
| title                 = From Higher Aims to Hired Hands: The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=v3DfpKEsNREC
| access-date            = 2013-08-24
| orig-year              = 2007
| year                  = 2010
| publisher             = Princeton University Press
| isbn                  = 978-1-4008-3086-2
| page                  = 3
| quote                 = When salaried managers first appeared in the large corporations of the late nineteenth century, it was not obvious who they were, what they did, or why they should be entrusted with the task of running corporations.
}}
</ref> As large corporations began to overshadow small family businesses the need for personnel management positions became more necessary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Groeger|first=Cristina V.|date=February 2018|title=A "Good Mixer": University Placement in Corporate America, 1890–1940|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0018268017000486/type/journal_article|journal=History of Education Quarterly|language=en|volume=58|issue=1|pages=33–64|doi=10.1017/heq.2017.48|s2cid=149037078|issn=0018-2680|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Businesses grew into large corporations and the need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college and university administrators to consider and move forward with plans to create the first schools of business on their campuses.

===20th century===
At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent.{{cn|date=April 2025}} The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less than one in twenty manufacturing firms had a dedicated personnel department. By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacoby |first=S.M. |date=1985 |title=Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 |journal=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cruikshank |first=L|date=1987 |title= A Delicate Experiment: The Harvard Business School, 1908-1945 |journal=Harvard Business School Press}}</ref> Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate-placement departments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Groeger |first=Cristina V. |date=February 2018 |title=A "Good Mixer": University Placement in Corporate America, 1890–1940 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0018268017000486/type/journal_article |journal=History of Education Quarterly |language=en |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=33–64 |doi=10.1017/heq.2017.48 |s2cid=149037078 |issn=0018-2680|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate élite in the US.

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see [[scientism]] for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include [[Henry R. Towne]]'s ''Science of management'' in the 1890s, [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]]'s ''[[The Principles of Scientific Management]]'' (1911), [[Lillian Moller Gilbreth|Lillian Gilbreth]]'s ''Psychology of Management'' (1914),<ref>{{cite book|url= https://archive.org/details/thepsychologyofm16256gut |title= The Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste |first= Lillian Moller |last= Gilbreth |via= Internet Archive}}</ref> [[Frank Bunker Gilbreth|Frank]] and [[Lillian Moller Gilbreth|Lillian Gilbreth]]'s ''Applied motion study'' (1917), and [[Henry L. Gantt]]'s charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first [[college]] management [[textbook]] in 1911. In 1912 [[Yoichi Ueno]] introduced [[Taylorism]] to [[Japan]] and became the first [[management consultant]] of the [[Japanese management culture| "Japanese management style"]]. His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese [[quality assurance]].

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920.{{citation needed|date= July 2018}} The [[Harvard Business School]] offered the first [[Master of Business Administration]] degree (MBA) in 1921. People like [[Henri Fayol]] (1841–1925) and [[Alexander Hamilton Church|Alexander Church]] (1866–1936) described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), [[Walter Dill Scott|Walter Scott]] (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of [[psychology]] to management. Other writers, such as [[Elton Mayo]] (1880–1949), [[Mary Follett|Mary Parker Follett]] (1868–1933), [[Chester Barnard]] (1886–1961), [[Max Weber]] (1864–1920, who saw what he called the "administrator" as [[bureaucrat]],<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Legge
| first1                = David
| last2                 = Stanton
| first2                = Pauline
| last3                 = Smyth
| first3                = Anne
| chapter               = Learning management (and managing your own learning)
| editor1-last          = Harris
| editor1-first         = Mary G.
| title                 = Managing Health Services: Concepts and Practice
| chapter-url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=yA2SR4DgU5wC
| location              = Marrickville, NSW
| publisher             = Elsevier Australia
| publication-date      = 2006
| page                  = 13
| isbn                  = 978-0-7295-3759-9
| access-date            = 2014-07-11
| quote                 = The ''manager as bureaucrat'' is the guardian of roles, rules, and relationships; his or her style of management relies heavily on working according to the book. In the Weberian tradition, managers are necessary to coordinate the different roles that contribute to the production process and to mediate communication from the head office to the shop floor and back. This style of management assumes a world view in which the bureaucratic role is seen as separate from, and taking precedence over, other constructions of self (including the obligations of citizenship), at least for the working day.
| date                = October 2005
}}
</ref>), [[Rensis Likert]] (1903–1981), and [[Chris Argyris]] (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a [[sociology|sociological]] perspective.

[[Peter Drucker]] (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: ''[[Concept of the Corporation]]'' (published in 1946). It resulted from [[Alfred Sloan]] (chairman of [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] until 1956) commissioning a study of the [[organization]]. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, [[Ronald Fisher]] (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management studies. In the 1940s, [[Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett|Patrick Blackett]] worked in the development of the [[applied mathematics|applied-mathematics]] [[science]] of [[operations research]], initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as "[[management science]]" (but distinct from Taylor's [[scientific management]]), attempts to take a [[science|scientific]] approach to solving decision-problems and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in the areas of [[logistics]] and operations.

Some of the later 20th-century developments include the [[theory of constraints]] (introduced in 1984), [[management by objectives]] (systematized in 1954), the {{ill|Harzburg Model|de|Harzburger Modell}}<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Yamazaki
 |first1               = Toshio
 |date                 = 9 December 2024
 |chapter              = 7.2 Deployment of Human Relations in Germany
 |title                = Japanese and German Enterprises: Comparison of Industrial Concentration System and Business Management
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-c2EQAAQBAJ
 |publication-place    = Singapore
 |publisher            = Springer Nature Singapore
 |page                 = 183
 |isbn                 = 9789819748808
 |access-date          = 30 April 2025
 |quote                = Original management models, such as the Harzburg model, also had a great effect. [...] Many firms found this model attractive; after the 1950s and 1960s, it was widely adopted in Germany [...].
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Avram
 |first1               = Elena
 |last2                = Avasilcai
 |first2               = Silvia
 |last3                = Bujor
 |first3               = Adriana
 |editor-last1         = Prostean
 |editor-first1        = Gabriela I.
 |editor-last2         = Lavios
 |editor-first2        = Juan J.
 |editor-last3         = Brancu
 |editor-first3        = Laura
 |editor-last4         = Şahin
 |editor-first4        = Faruk
 |date                 = 23 April 2025
 |chapter              = Elements of the Harzburg Management Model as a vector for Increasing Employee Motivation
 |title                = Management, Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Challenging Global Times: Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium in Management (SIM 2021)
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=X9MCMQAACAAJ
 |series               = Lecture Notes in Management and Industrial Engineering
 |publication-place    = Cham (Zug)
 |publisher            = Springer Nature
 |page                 = 268
 |isbn                 = 9783031471643
 |access-date          = 26 April 2025 
 |quote                =  [...] six central elements of the Harzburg Model: leadership principles, decentralization of the decision-making process, communication pattern, job description, delegation of responsibility and employee's development and organizational support.
}}
</ref>
(developed by {{ill|Reinhard Höhn|de|Reinhard Höhn}} in post-war Germany), [[business process reengineering|re-engineering]] (the early 1990s), [[Six Sigma]] (1986), [[management by walking around]] (1970s), the [[Viable system model]] (1972), and various [[information technology| information-technology]]-driven theories such as [[agile software development]] (so-named from 2001), as well as group-management theories such as [[Cog's Ladder]] (1972) and the notion of [[Tom Peters|"thriving on chaos"]]<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Peters
 | first1 = Thomas J.
 | author-link1 = Tom Peters
 | title = Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management Revolution
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ly4yuwEACAAJ
 | series = Perennial Library
 | volume = 7184
 | publisher = Knopf
 | date = 1987
 | isbn = 9780394560618
 | access-date = 7 September 2020
}}
</ref> (1987).

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for [[business philosophies and popular management theories|popularised systems of management ideas]] to peddle their wares. In this context, many [[management fad]]s may have had more to do with [[pop psychology]] than with scientific theories of management.

Business management includes the following branches:{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

# [[Finance|financial management]]
# [[human resource management]]
# [[management cybernetics]]
# [[information technology management]] (responsible for [[management information systems]] )
# [[marketing management]]
# [[operations management]] and [[Manufacturing|production]] management
# [[strategic management]]

===21st century===
Branches of management theory also exist relating to [[Non-profit organization|nonprofits]] and to government: such as [[public administration]], [[public management]], and [[educational management]]. Further, management programs related to [[civil society]] organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and [[social entrepreneurship]].

Many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from [[business ethics|business-ethics]] viewpoints, [[critical management studies]], and [[anti-corporate activism]]. This could include violations to a company’s [[Ethics policy|ethics policy.]] 

As one consequence, [[workplace democracy]] (sometimes referred to as [[Workers' self-management]]) has become both more common and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue and may occur more naturally than does a [[command hierarchy]].