Editing Muhammad (section)

==Medinan years==
{{main|First Islamic state}}

===Building the religious community in Medina===
A few days after settling in Medina, Muhammad negotiated for the purchase of a piece of land; upon this plot, the Muslims began constructing a building that would become Muhammad's residence as well as a community gathering place ({{tlit|ar|[[masjid]]}}) for prayer ({{tlit|ar|[[salat]]}}). Tree trunks were used as pillars to hold up the roof, and there was no fancy pulpit; instead, Muhammad stood on top of a small stool to speak to the congregation. The structure was completed after about seven months in April 623, becoming the first Muslim building and mosque; its northern wall had a stone marking the direction of prayer ({{tlit|ar|[[qibla]]}}) which was Jerusalem at that time. Muhammad used the building to host public and political meetings, as well as a place for the poor to gather to receive alms, food, and care. Christians and Jews were also allowed to participate in community worship at the mosque. Initially, Muhammad's religion had no organized way to call the community to prayer in a coordinated manner. To resolve this, Muhammad had considered using a ram's horn ({{tlit|ar|[[shofar]]}}) like the Jews or a wooden clapper like the Christians, but one of the Muslims in the community had a dream where a man in a green cloak told him that someone with a loud booming voice should announce the service by crying out "[[allahu akbar]]" ('God is greater') to remind Muslims of their top priority; when Muhammad heard about this dream, he agreed with the idea and selected [[Bilal ibn Rabah|Bilal]], a former Abyssinian slave known for his loud voice.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|pp=30–32|loc=Chapter Three: Hijrah}}

===Constitution of Medina===
{{main|Constitution of Medina}}
{{further|Diplomatic career of Muhammad}}
The [[Constitution of Medina]] was a [[covenant (law)|legal covenant]] written by Muhammad. In the constitution, Medina's Arab and Jewish tribes promised to live peacefully alongside the Muslims and to refrain from making a separate treaty with Mecca. It also guaranteed the Jews freedom of religion. In the agreement, everyone under its jurisdiction was required to defend and protect the oasis if attacked. Politically, the agreement helped Muhammad better understand which people were on his side.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=15|loc=Chapter Four: Jihad}} [[Ibn Ishaq]], following his narration of the {{tlit|ar|Hijrah}}, maintains that Muhammad penned the text and divulges its assumed content without supplying any {{tlit|ar|[[Hadith studies|isnad]]}} or corroboration.{{sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}} The appellation is generally deemed imprecise, as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes,{{sfn|Arjomand|2022|p=111}} but rather addressed tribal matters.{{sfn|Rubin|2022|p=8}} While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it was a treaty or a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it.{{sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}}{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=227}}

===Beginning of armed conflict===
{{Main|Battle of Badr}}
{{See also|Military career of Muhammad|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Muhammad}}

Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to Medina.<ref>[[Fazlur Rahman Malik|Fazlur Rahman]] 1979, p. 21.</ref> War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans.<ref>[[John Kelsay]] 1993, p. 21.</ref> According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the [[Masjid al-Qiblatayn]] in Medina, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.{{sfn|Watt|1961|pp=112-114}}

{{Quote box|quoted=true|bgcolor=#ffeeaa|align=right|width=25%|salign=right|quote=Permission has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory. Those who have been evicted from their homes without right—only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.|source=—&thinsp;Quran (22:39–40)}}

Muhammad ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the [[Raid on Nakhla]], resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners.<ref name="Watt2024" /> In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr.{{sfn|Rodinson|2002|p=164}} Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe.{{sfn|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=45}} Due to being outnumbered more than three to one, a spirit of fear ran throughout the Muslim camp; Muhammad tried to boost their morale by telling them he had a dream in which God promised to send 1,000 angels to fight with them.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=11|loc=Chapter Four: Jihad}}<ref>[[Quran 8]]:5–9</ref> From a tactical standpoint, Muhammad placed troops in front of all of the wells so the Quraysh would have to fight for water, and positioned other troops in such a way that would require the Quraysh to fight uphill while also facing the sun.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=11|loc=Chapter Four: Jihad}} The [[Battle of Badr]] commenced, and the Muslims ultimately won, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including [[Abu Jahl]].<ref>Glubb 2002, pp. 179–186.</ref> Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed.<ref>Lewis 2002, p. 41.</ref>{{sfn|Watt|1961|p=123}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2002|pp=168–169}} Muhammad and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} and Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels. The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.<ref>Lewis 2002, p. 44.</ref>

The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|loc=ch. 1}} As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, [[Asma bint Marwan]] of the Aws Manat tribe and [[Abu 'Afak]] of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims. They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove of the killings. This report, however, is considered by some to be a fabrication.<ref>Maulana Muhammad Ali, ''Muhammad The Prophet'', pp. 199–200.</ref> Most members of those tribes converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained.{{sfn|Watt|1956|pp=178–179}}

Muhammad expelled from Medina the [[Banu Qaynuqa]], one of three main Jewish tribes,{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad's death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zeitlin |first=Irving M. |title=The Historical Muhammad |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7456-5488-1 |page=148}}</ref> According to [[al-Waqidi]], after [[Abd Allah ibn Ubayy]] spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faizer |first=Rizwi |title=The Life of Muhammad: Al-Waqidi's Kitab al-Maghazi |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-136-92113-1 |page=79}}</ref> Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of [[Hejaz]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}

=== Conflicts with Jewish tribes ===
{{further|Muhammad's views on Jews}}

Once the ransom arrangements for the Meccan captives were finalized, he initiated a siege on the [[Banu Qaynuqa]],{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} regarded as the weakest and wealthiest of Medina's three main Jewish tribes.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=173}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}} Muslim sources provide different reasons for the siege, including an altercation involving [[Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]] and Ali in the Banu Qaynuqa market, and another version by [[Ibn Ishaq]], which tells the story of a Muslim woman being pranked by a Qaynuqa goldsmith.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}}{{sfn|Lassner|2012|p=143}} Regardless of the cause, the Banu Qaynuqa sought refuge in their fort, where Muhammad blockaded them, cutting off their access to food supplies. The Banu Qaynuqa requested help from their Arab allies, but the Arabs refused since they were supporters of Muhammad.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=20|loc=Chapter Four: Jihad}} After roughly two weeks, the Banu Qaynuqa capitulated without engaging in combat.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=173}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}}

Following the surrender of the Qaynuqa, Muhammad was moving to execute the men of the tribe when [[Abdullah ibn Ubayy]], a Muslim [[Khazraj]] chieftain who had been aided by the Qaynuqa in the past encouraged Muhammad to show leniency. In a narrated incident, Muhammad turned away from Ibn Ubayy, but undeterred, the chieftain grasped Muhammad's cloak, and refused to let go until Muhammad agreed to treat the tribe leniently. Despite being angered by the incident, Muhammad spared the Qaynuqa, stipulating that they must depart Medina within three days and relinquish their property to the Muslims, with a fifth ({{tlit|ar|[[khums]]}}) being retained by Muhammad.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0XmvEAAAQBAJ&dq=Qaynuqa+khums&pg=PT249 Muhammad: Biography of the Prophet. Karen Armstrong. 2023]</ref><ref>See:
*{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|pp=173–174}}
*{{harvnb|Glubb|2001|pp=197–198}}
*{{harvnb|Brockopp|2010|p=72}}
*{{harvnb|Rodgers|2012|pp=109–110}}</ref>

Back in Medina, [[Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf]], a wealthy half-Jewish man from [[Banu Nadir]] and staunch critic of Muhammad, had just returned from Mecca after producing poetry that mourned the death of the Quraysh at Badr and aroused them to retaliate.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=107}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=176}} When Muhammad learned of this incitement against the Muslims, he asked his followers, "Who is ready to kill Ka'b, who has hurt God and His apostle?"{{sfn|Al-Bukhari|1997|loc=Vol. 5, no. 4037}} [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah|Ibn Maslamah]] offered his services, explaining that the task would require deception. Muhammad did not contest this. He then gathered accomplices, including Ka'b's foster brother, Abu Naila. They pretended to complain about their post-conversion hardships, persuading Ka'b to lend them food. On the night of their meeting with Ka'b, they murdered him when he was caught off-guard.<ref>See:
*{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=176}}
*{{harvnb|Gabriel|2007|pp=112–114}}
*{{harvnb|Al-Bukhari|1997|loc=Vol. 5, no. 4037}}</ref>

===Meccan retaliation===
{{Main|Battle of Uhud}}
[[File:The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the Battle of Uhud, from the Siyer-i Nebi, 1595.jpg|thumb|"The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the [[Battle of Uhud]]", from the {{tlit|ar|[[Siyer-i Nebi]]}}]]

In 625, the Quraysh, wearied by Muhammad's continuous attacks on their caravans, decided to take decisive action. Led by [[Abu Sufyan]], they assembled an army to oppose Muhammad.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=110}} Upon being alerted by his scout about the impending threat, Muhammad convened a war council. Initially, he considered defending from the city center, but later decided to meet the enemy in open battle at [[Mount Uhud]], following the insistence of the younger faction of his followers.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=113}} As they prepared to depart, the remaining Jewish allies of [[Abdullah ibn Ubayy]] offered their help, which Muhammad declined.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|pp=113–114}} Despite being outnumbered, the Muslims initially held their ground but lost advantage when some archers disobeyed orders. As rumors of Muhammad's death spread, the Muslims started to flee, but he had only been injured and managed to escape with a group of loyal adherents. Satisfied they had restored their honor, the Meccans returned to Mecca.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|pp=120–123}} Mass casualties suffered by the Muslims in the Battle of Uhud resulted in many wives and daughters being left without a male protector, so after the battle, Muhammad received [[An-Nisa|revelation]] allowing Muslim men to have up to four wives each, marking the beginning of [[polygyny in Islam]].{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=23|loc=Chapter Four: Jihad}}

Sometime later, Muhammad found himself needing to pay blood money to [[Banu Amir]]. He sought monetary help from the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Nadir]],{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=137}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=191}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=127}} and they agreed to his request.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=191}} However, while waiting, he departed from his companions and disappeared. When they found him at his home, according to [[Ibn Ishaq]], Muhammad disclosed that he had received a divine revelation of a planned assassination attempt on him by the Banu Nadir, which involved dropping a boulder from a rooftop. Muhammad then initiated a siege on the tribe;{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=192}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|pp=127–128}} during this time he also commanded the felling and burning of their palm groves,{{sfn|Peters|1994|p=219}} which was an unambiguous symbol of declaring war in Arabia.{{sfn|Armstrong|2013|p=30|loc=Chapter Four: Jihad}} After a fortnight or so, the Banu Nadir capitulated.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=193}} They were directed to vacate their land and permitted to carry only one camel-load of goods for every three people.{{sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=240}} From the spoils, Muhammad claimed a fertile piece of land where barley sprouted amongst palm trees.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=194}}

=== Raid on the Banu Mustaliq ===
Upon receiving a report that the [[Banu Mustaliq]] were planning an attack on Medina, Muhammad's troops executed a surprise attack on them at their watering place, causing them to flee rapidly. In the confrontation, the Muslims lost one man, while the enemy suffered ten casualties.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=196}} As part of their triumph, the Muslims seized 2,000 camels, 500 sheep and goats, and 200 women from the tribe.{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=130}} The Muslim soldiers desired the captive women, but they also sought ransom money. They asked Muhammad about using {{lang|la|[[coitus interruptus]]}} to prevent pregnancy, to which Muhammad replied, "You are not under any obligation to forbear from that..."{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=197}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=262}} Later, envoys arrived in Medina to negotiate the ransom for the women and children. Despite having the choice, all of them chose to return to their country instead of staying.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=197}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=262}}

===Battle of the Trench===
{{Main|Battle of the Trench}}
With the help of the exiled [[Banu Nadir]], the Quraysh military leader [[Abu Sufyan]] mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, [[Salman the Persian]]. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks.{{sfn|Watt|1956|pp=36–37}} Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Rodinson|2002|pp=209–211}}
* {{harvnb|Watt|1961|p=169}}</ref> The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27.<ref name="Rubin">Uri Rubin, ''Quraysh'', [[Encyclopaedia of the Quran]].</ref>
During the battle, the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Qurayza]], located to the south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts.{{sfn|Watt|1961|pp=170–172}} After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; according to [[Ibn Ishaq]], all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=126}}{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|p=141}} Walid N. Arafat and [[Barakat Ahmad]] have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq's narrative.<ref>Meri, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia'', p. 754.</ref> Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his contemporary [[Malik ibn Anas]], and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later [[Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani|Ibn Hajar]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arafat |title=New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=1976 |pages=100–107}}</ref> Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved.<ref>Ahmad, pp. 85–94.</ref><ref>Nemoy, "Barakat Ahmad's "Muhammad and the Jews", p. 325. Nemoy is sourcing Ahmad's ''Muhammad and the Jews''.</ref> Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while [[Meir J. Kister]] has refuted the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.<ref>{{citation|first=Meir J.|last=Kister|author-link=Meir J. Kister|title=The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza: A Re-Examination of a Tradition|url=http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/banu_qurayza.pdf|pages=64–66}}</ref>

In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=39}} Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an [[Aisha#Accusation of adultery|accusation of adultery]] was made against [[Aisha]], Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, [[An-Nur]]).<ref name="Watt" />

=== Invasion of the Banu Qurayza ===
{{Main|Invasion of Banu Qurayza}}
On the day the Quraysh forces and their allies withdrew, Muhammad, while bathing at his wife's abode, received a visit from the angel Gabriel, who instructed him to attack the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Qurayza]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=141}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=249}} Islamic sources recount that during the [[Battle of the Trench|preceding Meccan siege]], the Quraysh leader [[Abu Sufyan]] incited the Qurayza to attack the Muslims from their compound, but the Qurayza demanded the Quraysh to provide 70 hostages from among themselves to ascertain their commitment to their plans, as proposed by Muhammad's secret agent [[Nuaym ibn Masud]]. Abu Sufyan refused their requirement.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|pp=147–148}} Nevertheless, later accounts claim that 11 Jewish individuals from the Qurayza were indeed agitated and acted against Muhammad, though the course of event may have been dramatized within the tradition.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=211}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=141}}

Citing the intrigue of the Qurayza, Muhammad besieged the tribe, though the tribe denied the charges.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|pp=211–212}}{{sfn|Miller|2011|p=91}}{{sfn|Lapidus|2012|p=42}} However, there are sources that say the [[Banu Qurayza]] broke the treaty with Muhammad and assisted the enemies of Muslims during the Battle of the Trench.<ref>See:
*{{Cite book |last1=Ibn Hishām |first1=ʻAbd al-Malik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tug7AAAAMAAJ |title=The Life of Muhammad |last2=Ibn Isḥāq |first2=Muḥammad |publisher=Pakistan Branch, Oxford University Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-19-636034-8 |page=453}}
*{{harvnb|Al-Tabari|1997|p=14}}
*{{harvnb|Armstrong|2007|p=148}}
*{{harvnb|Brown|2011|p=42}}
*{{harvnb|Irving|1904|p=149}}
*{{harvnb|Muir|1861|p=259}}
*{{harvnb|Ramadan|2007|p=140}}
*{{harvnb|Waqidi|2011|p=225}}
*{{harvnb|Watt|1961|pp=170–173}}
</ref> As the situation turned against the Qurayza, the tribe proposed to leave their land with one loaded camel each, but Muhammad refused. They then offered to leave without taking anything, but this was rejected as well, with Muhammad insisting on their unconditional surrender.{{sfn|Kister|2022|p=62}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|pp=211–212}} The Qurayza subsequently requested to confer with one of their [[Banu Aws|Aws]] allies who had embraced Islam, leading to the arrival of [[Abu Lubaba ibn Abd al-Mundhir|Abu Lubaba]]. When asked about Muhammad's intentions, he gestured towards his throat, indicating an imminent massacre. He immediately regretted his indiscretion and tied himself to one of the Mosque pillars as a form of penance.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Kister|2022|p=62}}

After a 25-day siege, the Banu Qurayza surrendered. The Muslims of Banu Aws entreated Muhammad for leniency, prompting him to suggest that one of their own should serve as the judge, which they accepted. Muhammad assigned the role to [[Sa'd ibn Mu'adh]], a man nearing death from an infection in his wounds from the previous Meccan siege.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=251}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Nagel|2020|p=119}} He pronounced that all the men should be put to death, their possessions to be distributed among Muslims, and their women and children to be taken as captives. Muhammad approved this pronouncement saying it aligned with the God's judgement.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=251}} Consequently, 600–900 men of Banu Qurayza were executed. The women and children were distributed as slaves, with some being transported to [[Najd]] to be sold. The proceeds were then utilized to purchase weapons and horses for the Muslims.<ref>See:
*{{harvnb|Glubb|2001|p=252}}
*{{harvnb|Rodgers|2012|p=152}}
*{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=213}}
*{{harvnb|Hazleton|2014|p=235}}</ref>

=== Incidents with the Banu Fazara ===
A few months after the conflict with the Banu Qurayza, Muhammad organized a caravan to conduct trade in Syria. [[Zayd ibn Haritha]] was tasked with guarding the convoy. When they journeyed through the territory of [[Banu Fazara]], whom Zayd had raided in the past, the tribe seized the opportunity for revenge, attacking the caravan and injuring him. Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad ordered Zayd to lead a punitive operation against the Fazara in which their matriarch [[Umm Qirfa]] was captured and brutally executed.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=179}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=248}}

=== Treaty of Hudaybiyya ===
{{Main|Treaty of al-Hudaybiya}}
[[File:Kaaba_Masjid_Haraam_Makkah.jpg|thumb|The [[Kaaba]] in Mecca long held a major economic and religious role for the area. Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim direction for prayer ({{tlit|ar|qibla}}). The Kaaba has been rebuilt several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier building dating to 683.{{sfn|Peters|2003b|p=88}}]]
Early in 628, following a dream of making an unopposed pilgrimage to Mecca, Muhammad embarked on the journey. He was dressed in his customary pilgrim attire and was accompanied by a group of followers.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|pp=255–256}} Upon reaching [[Treaty of al-Hudaybiya|Hudaybiyya]], they encountered Quraysh emissaries who questioned their intentions. Muhammad explained they had come to venerate the Kaaba, not to fight.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=267}} He then sent [[Uthman]], [[Abu Sufyan]]'s second cousin, to negotiate with the Quraysh. As the negotiations were prolonged, rumors of Uthman's death began to spark, prompting Muhammad to call his followers to renew their oaths of loyalty. Uthman returned with news of a negotiation impasse. Muhammad remained persistent. In the end, the Quraysh sent [[Suhayl ibn Amr]], an envoy with full negotiation powers. Following lengthy discussions, a treaty was finally enacted,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|pp=251–252}} with terms:

# A ten-year truce was established between both parties.
# If a Qurayshite came to Muhammad's side without his guardian's allowance, he was to be returned to the Quraysh; yet, if a Muslim came to the Quraysh, he would not be surrendered to Muhammad.
# Any tribes interested in forming alliances with Muhammad or the Quraysh were free to do so. These alliances were also protected by the ten-year truce.
# Muslims were then required to depart back to Medina, however, they were permitted to make the [[Umrah]] pilgrimage in the coming year.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|pp=251–252}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=267}}

=== Invasion of Khaybar ===
{{Main|Battle of Khaybar}}
Roughly ten weeks subsequent to his return from Hudaybiyya, Muhammad expressed his plan to invade [[Khaybar]], a flourishing oasis about {{convert|75|mi|km}} north of Medina. The city was populated by Jews, including those from the [[Banu Nadir]], who had previously been expelled by Muhammad from Medina. With the prospect of rich spoils from the mission, numerous volunteers answered his call.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=280}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=253}} To keep their movements hidden, the Muslim military chose to march during the nighttime. As dawn arrived and the city folks stepped out of their fortifications to harvest their dates, they were taken aback by the sight of the advancing Muslim forces. Muhammad cried out, "[[Allahu Akbar]]! Khaybar is destroyed. For when we approach a people's land, a terrible morning awaits the warned ones."{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=197}} After a strenuous battle lasting more than a month, the Muslims successfully captured the city.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=200}}

The spoils, inclusive of the wives of the slain warriors, were distributed among the Muslims.{{sfn|Phipps|2016|p=65}} The chief of the Jews, [[Kenana ibn al-Rabi]], to whom the treasure of Banu al-Nadir was entrusted, denied knowing its whereabouts. After a Jew disclosed his habitual presence around a particular ruin, Muhammad ordered excavations, and the treasure was found. When questioned about the remaining wealth, Kenana refused to divulge it. Kinana was then put through torture by Muhammad's decree and subsequently beheaded by [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah]] in revenge for his brother.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|pp=200–201}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} Muhammad took Kinana's wife, [[Safiyya bint Huyayy]], as his own slave and later advised her to convert to Islam. She accepted and agreed to become Muhammad's wife.<ref>See:
*{{harvnb|Glubb|2001|pp=282–283}}
*{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=254}}
*{{harvnb|Swarup|2011|p=75}}
*{{harvnb|Morgan|2009|p=128}}</ref>

Following their defeat by the Muslims, some of the Jews proposed to Muhammad that they stay and serve as tenant farmers, given the Muslims' lack of expertise and labor force for date palm cultivation. They agreed to give half of the annual produce to the Muslims. Muhammad consented to this arrangement with the caveat that he could displace them at any time. While they were allowed to farm, he demanded the surrender of all gold or silver, executing those who secreted away their wealth.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=202}}{{sfn|Sa'd|1972|pp=139–140}} Taking a cue from what transpired in Khaybar, the Jews in [[Fadak]] immediately sent an envoy to Muhammad and agreed to the same terms of relinquishing 50% of their annual harvest. However, since no combat occurred, the rank and file had no claim to a portion of the spoils. Consequently, all the loot became Muhammad's exclusive wealth.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|pp=283–284}}

At the feast following the battle, the meal served to Muhammad was reportedly poisoned. His companion, Bishr, fell dead after consuming it, while Muhammad himself managed to vomit it out after tasting it.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=48}} The perpetrator was [[Zaynab bint al-Harith]], a Jewish woman whose father, uncle, and husband had been killed by the Muslims.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} When asked why she did it, she replied, "You know what you've done to my people... I said to myself: If he is truly a prophet, he will know about the poison. If he's merely a king, I'll be rid of him."{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} Muhammad suffered illness for a period due to the poison he ingested, and he endured sporadic pain from it until his death.{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=49}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=283}}