Editing Reinforcement (section)

===Simple schedules===

[[File:Schedule of reinforcement.png|thumb|right|A chart demonstrating the different response rate of the four simple schedules of reinforcement, each hatch mark designates a reinforcer being given]]
* '''Ratio schedule''' – the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has performed.
* '''Continuous reinforcement (CRF)''' – a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer.<ref name=Miltenberger/>{{rp|86}}

Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for a specific response.
* ''Fixed ratio'' (FR) – schedules deliver reinforcement after every ''n''th response.<ref name=Miltenberger/>{{rp|88}} An FR 1 schedule is synonymous with a CRF schedule.
#(ex. Every three times a rat presses a button, that rat receives a slice of cheese)  
* ''Variable ratio schedule'' (VR) – reinforced on average every ''n''th response, but not always on the ''n''th response.<ref name=Miltenberger/>{{rp|88}}
#(ex. Gamblers win 1 out every an 10 turns on a slot machine, however this is an average and they could hypothetically win on any given turn)
* ''Fixed interval'' (FI) – reinforced after ''n'' amount of time.
# (ex. Every 10 minutes, a rat receives a slice of cheese when it presses a button. Eventually, the rat will learn to ignore the button until each 10 minute interval has elapsed)
* ''Variable interval'' (VI) – reinforced on an average of ''n'' amount of time, but not always exactly ''n'' amount of time.<ref name=Miltenberger/>{{rp|89}}
# (ie. A radio host gives away concert tickets approximately every hour, but the exact minutes may vary)
* ''Fixed time'' (FT) – Provides a reinforcing stimulus at a fixed time since the last reinforcement delivery, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule.
* ''Variable time'' (VT) – Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not.

Simple schedules are utilized in many differential reinforcement<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vollmer TR, Iwata BA | title = Differential reinforcement as treatment for behavior disorders: procedural and functional variations | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 393–417 | date = 1992 | pmid = 1509180 | doi=10.1016/0891-4222(92)90013-v}}</ref> procedures:
* ''Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior'' (DRA) - A conditioning procedure in which an undesired response is decreased by placing it on [[Extinction (psychology)|extinction]] or, less commonly, providing contingent punishment, while simultaneously providing reinforcement contingent on a desirable response. An example would be a teacher attending to a student only when they raise their hand, while ignoring the student when he or she calls out.
* ''Differential reinforcement of other behavior'' (DRO) – Also known as omission training procedures, an instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand action other than nose picking.<ref name="Miltenberger" />{{rp|338}}
* ''Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior'' (DRI) – Used to reduce a frequent behavior without [[punishment (psychology)|punishing]] it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping to reduce nose picking 
* ''Differential reinforcement of low response rate'' (DRL) – Used to encourage low rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between behavior.
* ''Differential reinforcement of high rate'' (DRH) – Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to receive reinforcement.

====Effects of different types of simple schedules====

* Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer is delivered, then response rates increase until the next reinforcer delivery (post-reinforcement pause).
* Variable ratio: rapid, steady rate of responding; most resistant to [[Extinction (psychology)|extinction]].
* Fixed interval: responding increases towards the end of the interval; poor resistance to extinction.
* Variable interval: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction.
* Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of reinforcement are otherwise similar.
* Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to [[extinction (psychology)|extinction]] than most fixed schedules. This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE).
* The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction (for example, the behavior of [[gambler]]s at [[slot machine]]s).
* Fixed schedules produce "post-reinforcement pauses" (PRP), where responses will briefly cease immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response requirement rather than the prior reinforcement.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Derenne A, Flannery KA | date = 2007 | title = Within Session FR Pausing. | journal = The Behavior Analyst Today | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 175–86 | doi=10.1037/h0100611}}</ref>
** The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped" accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more "angular" response.
*** fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time.
* Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are "thinned" (that is, requiring more responses or a greater wait before reinforcement) may experience "ratio strain" if thinned too quickly. This produces behavior similar to that seen during extinction.
** Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is increased too rapidly.
** Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur.
* Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules.
** Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant than fixed ones.
** Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McSweeney |first1=Frances K. |last2=Murphy |first2=Eric S. |last3=Kowal |first3=Benjamin P. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Dynamic changes in reinforcer value: Some misconceptions and why you should care. |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |date=2001 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=341–349 |doi=10.1037/h0099952}}</ref>