Editing Scientific theory (section)

===Theories as models===
{{main|Scientific model}}

The [[semantic view of theories]], which identifies scientific theories with [[scientific model|models]] rather than [[proposition]]s, has replaced the received view as the dominant position in theory formulation in the philosophy of science.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Suppe |first1=Frederick |year=1998 |title=Understanding Scientific Theories: An Assessment of Developments, 1969–1998 |journal=Philosophy of Science |volume=67 |pages=S102–S115 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/~hhalvors/teaching/phi520_f2012/Suppe_2000.pdf |access-date=14 February 2013 |doi=10.1086/392812|s2cid=37361274 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Halvorson |first1=Hans |year=2012 |title=What Scientific Theories Could Not Be |journal=Philosophy of Science |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=183–206 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/~hhalvors/teaching/phi520_f2012/halvorson2012.pdf |access-date=14 February 2013 |doi=10.1086/664745|citeseerx=10.1.1.692.8455 |s2cid=37897853 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frigg |first1=Roman |year=2006 |title=Scientific Representation and the Semantic View of Theories |journal=Theoria |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=183–206 |url=http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/2926/1/Scientific_Representation.pdf |access-date=14 February 2013}}</ref> A model is a logical framework intended to represent reality (a "model of reality"), similar to the way that a map is a graphical model that represents the territory of a city or country.<ref>Hacking, Ian (1983). ''Representing and Intervening. Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science''. Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Box, George E.P. & Draper, N.R. (1987). ''Empirical Model-Building and Response Surfaces.'' Wiley. p. 424</ref>

[[File:Perihelio.svg|thumb|right|[[Apsidal precession|Precession]] of the [[perihelion]] of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] (exaggerated). The deviation in Mercury's position from the Newtonian prediction is about 43 [[Second of arc|arc-seconds]] (about two-thirds of 1/60 of a [[Degree (angle)|degree]]) per century.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Lorenzo Iorio|title=On the possibility of measuring the solar oblateness and some relativistic effects from planetary ranging|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20047155|year=2005|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=433|issue=1|pages=385–93|arxiv=gr-qc/0406041|bibcode=2005A&A...433..385I|s2cid=1546486}}</ref><ref>Myles Standish, Jet Propulsion Laboratory (1998)</ref>]]

In this approach, theories are a specific category of models that fulfil the necessary criteria (see [[#Characteristics of theories|above]]). One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model. A model of the [[Solar System]], for example, might consist of abstract objects that represent the Sun and the planets. These objects have associated properties, e.g., positions, velocities, and masses. The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time. This model can then be tested to see whether it accurately predicts future observations; astronomers can verify that the positions of the model's objects over time match the actual positions of the planets. For most planets, the Newtonian model's predictions are accurate; for [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], it is slightly inaccurate and the model of [[general relativity]] must be used instead.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

The word "[[semantic]]" refers to the way that a model represents the real world. The representation (literally, "re-presentation") describes particular aspects of a phenomenon or the manner of interaction among a set of phenomena. For instance, a scale model of a house or of the Solar System is clearly not an actual house or an actual Solar System; the aspects of an actual house or the actual Solar System represented in a scale model are, only in certain limited ways, representative of the actual entity. A scale model of a house is not a house; but to someone who wants to ''learn about'' houses, analogous to a scientist who wants to understand reality, a sufficiently detailed scale model may suffice.

====Differences between theory and model====
{{main|Conceptual model}}
Several commentators<ref>For example, Reese & Overto (1970); Lerner (1998); also Lerner & Teti (2005), in the context of modeling human behavior.</ref> have stated that the distinguishing characteristic of theories is that they are explanatory as well as descriptive, while models are only descriptive (although still predictive in a more limited sense). Philosopher [[Stephen Pepper]] also distinguished between theories and models and said in 1948 that general models and theories are predicated on a "root" metaphor that constrains how scientists theorize and model a phenomenon and thus arrive at testable hypotheses.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Engineering practice makes a distinction between "mathematical models" and "physical models"; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a [[computer-aided design]] tool. The component parts are each themselves modelled, and the fabrication tolerances are specified. An [[exploded view drawing]] is used to lay out the fabrication sequence. Simulation packages for displaying each of the subassemblies allow the parts to be rotated, and magnified, in realistic detail. Software packages for creating the bill of materials for construction allow subcontractors to specialize in assembly processes, which spreads the cost of manufacturing machinery among multiple customers. See: [[Computer-aided engineering]], [[Computer-aided manufacturing]], and [[3D printing]]{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}