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Single-photon avalanche diode
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==== Pixel-level optical improvements ==== As with CMOS image sensors [[Microlens|micro-lenses]] can be fabricated on the SPAD pixel array to focus light into the centre of the SPAD.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=G. Intermite and R. E. Warburton and A. McCarthy and X. Ren and F. Villa and A. J. Waddie and M. R. Taghizadeh and Y. Zou and Franco Zappa and Alberto Tosi and Gerald S. Buller|s2cid=91178727|editor3-first=Ralph B|editor3-last=James|editor2-first=Roman|editor2-last=Sobolewski|editor1-first=Ivan|editor1-last=Prochazka|date=2015|title=Enhancing the fill-factor of CMOS SPAD arrays using microlens integration|journal=SPIE: Photon Counting Applications 2015|series=Photon Counting Applications 2015|volume=9504|pages=64β75|doi=10.1117/12.2178950|bibcode=2015SPIE.9504E..0JI|hdl=11311/971983 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> As with a single SPAD, this allows light to only hit the sensitive regions and avoid both the guard ring and any routing that is needed within the array. This has also recently included Fresnel type lenses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peter W. R. Connolly, Ximing Ren, Aongus McCarthy, Hanning Mai, Federica Villa, Andrew J. Waddie, Mohammad R. Taghizadeh, Alberto Tosi, Franco Zappa, Robert K. Henderson, and Gerald S. Buller|date=2020|title=High concentration factor diffractive microlenses integrated with CMOS single-photon avalanche diode detector arrays for fill-factor improvement|journal=Applied Optics|volume=59|issue=14|pages=4488β4498|doi=10.1364/AO.388993|pmid=32400429|pmc=7340373|bibcode=2020ApOpt..59.4488C|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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