Editing Unification of Italy (section)

==Towards the Kingdom of Italy==
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| footer            = [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] (left) and [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour]] (right), leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the first king and first Prime Minister of unified Italy.
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===Pisacane fiasco===
In 1857, [[Carlo Pisacane]], an aristocrat from Naples who had embraced Mazzini's ideas, decided to provoke a rising in the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]]. His small force landed on the island of [[Ponza]]. It overpowered guards and liberated hundreds of prisoners. In sharp contrast to his hypothetical expectations, there was no local uprising and the invaders were quickly overpowered. Pisacane was killed by angry locals who suspected he was leading a [[Romani people|Romani]] band trying to steal their food.<ref>{{cite book|first=Martin |last=Collier|title=Italian Unification, 1820–71|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG9kZBJdKJwC&pg=PA51|year=2003|publisher=Heinemann|page=51|isbn=978-0435327545}}</ref>

===Second Italian Independence War of 1859 and aftermath===
{{Main|Second Italian War of Independence}}
The Second War of Italian Independence began in April 1859 when the Sardinian Prime Minister [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour|Count Cavour]] found an ally in [[Napoleon III]]. Napoleon III signed a secret alliance and Cavour provoked Austria with military maneuvers and eventually led to the war in April 1859. Cavour called for volunteers to enlist in the Italian liberation. The Austrians planned to use their army to beat the Sardinians before the French could come to their aid. Austria had an army of 140,000 men, while the Sardinians had a mere 70,000 men by comparison. However, the Austrians' numerical strength was outweighed by an ineffectual leadership appointed by the Emperor on the basis of noble lineage, rather than military competency. Their army was slow to enter Piedmont, taking almost ten days to travel the {{convert|80|km}} to [[Turin]]. By this time, the French had reinforced the Sardinians, so the Austrians retreated.

[[File:San Fermo 1859 Gaildrau.jpg|thumb|left|[[Battle of San Fermo]]]]
The Austrians were defeated at the [[Battle of Magenta]] on 4 June and pushed back to [[Lombardy]]. Napoleon III's plans worked and at the [[Battle of Solferino]], France and Sardinia defeated Austria and forced negotiations; at the same time, in the northern part of Lombardy, the Italian volunteers known as the [[Hunters of the Alps]], led by [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], defeated the Austrians at [[Battle of Varese|Varese]] and [[Battle of San Fermo|Como]]. On 12 July, the [[Armistice of Villafranca]] was signed. The settlement, by which Lombardy was annexed to Sardinia, left Austria in control of the Veneto and [[Mantua]]. The final arrangement was ironed out by "back-room" deals. This was because neither France, Austria, nor Sardinia wanted to risk another battle and could not handle further fighting. All of the sides were eventually unhappy with the outcome of the Second War of Italian Unification and expected another conflict in the future.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Avery|first1=Robert|title=The Victorian Web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/history/risorgimento/3.html|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref> In fact, Napoleon III and Cavour were mutually indebted: the first because he had withdrawn from the Second Italian War of Independence before the expected conquest of [[Venice]], the second because he had allowed the uprisings to spread to the territories of central-northern Italy, thus going beyond what was agreed with the [[Plombières Agreement]].
[[File:Les manifestations pro-italiennes à Nice du 1871.jpg|thumb|Pro-Italian protests in Nice, 1871, during the [[Niçard Vespers]]]]

Sardinia annexed Lombardy from Austria; it later occupied and annexed the [[United Provinces of Central Italy]], consisting of the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]], the [[Duchy of Parma]], the [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio]] and the Papal Legations on 22 March 1860. Sardinia handed Savoy and Nice over to France at the [[Treaty of Turin (1860)|Treaty of Turin]], a decision that was the consequence of the Plombières Agreement, on 24 March 1860, an event that caused the [[Niçard exodus]], which was the emigration of a quarter of the [[Niçard Italians]] to Italy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.montecarlonews.it/2017/08/28/notizie/argomenti/altre-notizie-1/articolo/un-nizzardo-su-quattro-prese-la-via-dellesilio-in-seguito-allunita-ditalia-dice-lo-scrittore.html|title='Un nizzardo su quattro prese la via dell'esilio' in seguito all'unità d'Italia, dice lo scrittore Casalino Pierluigi|date=28 August 2017|access-date=14 May 2021|language=it}}</ref>

[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] was elected in 1871 in Nice at the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] where he tried to promote the annexation of his hometown to the [[Kingdom of Italy|newborn Italian unitary state]], but he was prevented from speaking.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://storage.canalblog.com/76/72/572678/57843167.png |title=Times article dated February 13, 1871|access-date=20 October 2011}}</ref> Because of this denial, between 1871 and 1872 there were riots in Nice, promoted by the Garibaldini and called "[[Niçard Vespers]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philweb.it/i_vespri_nizzardi_del_1871_conferenza_storica_e_annullo_speciale-st1940.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909073731/http://www.philweb.it/i_vespri_nizzardi_del_1871_conferenza_storica_e_annullo_speciale-st1940.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 September 2012|title=I Vespri Nizzardi del 1871: conferenza storica e annullo speciale|access-date=20 October 2011}}</ref> which demanded the annexation of the city and its area to Italy.<ref>J. Woolf Stuart, ''Il risorgimento italiano'', Turin, Einaudi, 1981, p. 44 (In Italian).</ref> Fifteen Nice people who participated in the rebellion were tried and sentenced.<ref>Giuseppe André, ''Nizza negli ultimi quattro anni'', Nice, Editore Gilletta, 1875, pp. 334–335 (In Italian).</ref>

===Expedition of the Thousand===
{{Main|Expedition of the Thousand}}
[[File:Giuseppe Garibaldi 1861.jpg|thumb|[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times<ref name="scholar and patriot">{{cite web |url={{Google books|iWK7AAAAIAAJ |page=PA133 |keywords=Garibaldi+one+of+the+greatest+generals+of+modern+time |text= |plainurl=yes}}|title=Scholar and Patriot|publisher=Manchester University Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in South America and Europe,<ref name="Garibaldi on Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi |title=Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary) |access-date=6 March 2014 | url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226091529/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi |archive-date=26 February 2014 }}</ref> who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led to the unification of Italy]]

Thus, by early 1860, only five states remained in Italy—the Austrians in Venetia, the [[Papal States]] (now minus the Legations), the new expanded Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]], and [[San Marino]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Barbagallo|first=Francesco|title=Mezzogiorno e questione meridionale|year=1980|publisher=Guida|location=Napoli|page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Seaman|first=L. C. B.|chapter=Proved Only Negative Propositions|title=The Unification of Italy, 1859–1861: Cavour, Mazzini, or Garibaldi?|editor1-last=Delzell|editor1-first=Charles|year=1980|publisher=Hold, Rinehart, and Winston|location=New York|page=72}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Commissione nazionale per la pubblicazione dei carteggi del Conte di Cavour |title=Camillo Cavour: Epistolario |publisher=Olschki |year=2005 |volume=17 |location=Firenze |page=2944 |quote=La Sicilia sarà una delle più belle gemme della sua corona; ed uno degli elementi più vitali della nazione.}}</ref>

[[Francis II of the Two Sicilies]], the son and successor of [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand II]] (the infamous "King Bomba"), had a well-organized army of 150,000 men. But his father's tyranny had inspired many secret societies, and the kingdom's [[Swiss mercenaries]] were unexpectedly recalled home under the terms of a new Swiss law that forbade Swiss citizens to serve as mercenaries. This left Francis with only his mostly unreliable native troops. It was a critical opportunity for the unification movement. In April 1860, separate insurrections began in [[Messina]] and [[Palermo]] in Sicily, both of which had demonstrated a history of opposing Neapolitan rule. These rebellions were easily suppressed by loyal troops.

In the meantime, [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], a native of Nice, was deeply resentful of the French annexation of his home city. He hoped to use his supporters to regain the territory. Cavour, terrified of Garibaldi provoking a war with France, persuaded Garibaldi to instead use his forces in the Sicilian rebellions. On 6 May 1860, Garibaldi and his cadre of about a thousand Italian volunteers (called ''[[Redshirts (Italy)|I Mille]]''), steamed from [[Quarto dei Mille|Quarto]] near [[Genoa]], and, after a stop in [[Talamone]] on 11 May, landed near [[Marsala]] on the west coast of Sicily.

Near [[Salemi]], Garibaldi's army attracted scattered bands of rebels, and the combined forces defeated the [[Army of the Two Sicilies]] at the [[Battle of Calatafimi]] on 13 May. Within three days, the invading force had swelled to 4,000 men. On 14 May Garibaldi proclaimed himself [[Dictatorship of Garibaldi|dictator of Sicily]], in the name of Victor Emmanuel. After waging various successful but hard-fought battles, Garibaldi advanced upon the Sicilian capital of Palermo, announcing his arrival by beacon-fires kindled at night. On 27 May the force began the [[Siege of Palermo]], while a mass uprising of street and barricade fighting broke out within the city.

[[File:Battle of Calatafimi.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Calatafimi]]]]
With Palermo deemed insurgent, Neapolitan general [[Ferdinando Lanza]], arriving in Sicily with some 25,000 troops, furiously bombarded Palermo nearly to ruins. With the intervention of a British admiral, an armistice was declared, leading to the Neapolitan troops' departure and surrender of the town to Garibaldi and his much smaller army.

This resounding success demonstrated the weakness of the Neapolitan government. Garibaldi's fame spread and many Italians began to consider him a national hero. Doubt, confusion, and dismay overtook the Neapolitan court—the king hastily summoned his ministry and offered to restore an earlier constitution, but these efforts failed to rebuild the people's trust in [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies|Bourbon]] governance.

Six weeks after the surrender of Palermo, Garibaldi attacked Messina. Within a week, its citadel surrendered. Having conquered Sicily, Garibaldi proceeded to the mainland, crossing the [[Strait of Messina]] with the Neapolitan fleet at hand. The garrison at [[Reggio Calabria]] promptly surrendered. As he marched northward, the populace everywhere hailed him, and military resistance faded: on 18 and 21 August, the people of [[Basilicata]] and [[Apulia]], two regions of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, independently declared their annexation to the Kingdom of Italy. At the end of August, Garibaldi was at [[Cosenza]], and, on 5 September, at [[Eboli]], near [[Salerno]]. Meanwhile, [[Naples]] had declared a state of siege, and on 6 September the king gathered the 4,000 troops still faithful to him and retreated over the [[Volturno|River Volturno]]. The next day, Garibaldi, with a few followers, entered by train into Naples, where the people openly welcomed him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/spedizione-dei-mille/|title=Spedizione Dei Mille nell'Enciclopedia Treccani|work=Treccani, l'Enciclopedia italiana|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>

===Defeat of the Kingdom of Naples===
[[File:Napoli Castel Nuovo museo civico - ingresso di Garibaldi a Napoli - Wenzel bis.jpg|thumb|People cheering as Garibaldi enters Naples]]
Although Garibaldi had easily taken the capital, the Neapolitan army had not joined the rebellion ''en masse'', holding firm along the River Volturno. Garibaldi's irregular bands of about 25,000 men could not drive away the king or take the fortresses of [[Capua]] and [[Gaeta]] without the help of the [[Royal Sardinian Army]]. The Sardinian army, however, could only arrive by traversing the Papal States, which extended across the entire center of the peninsula. Ignoring the political will of the [[Holy See]], Garibaldi announced his intent to proclaim a "Kingdom of Italy" from [[Rome]], the capital city of [[Pope Pius IX]]. Seeing this as a threat to the domain of the Catholic Church, Pius threatened [[excommunication]] for those who supported such an effort. Afraid that Garibaldi would attack Rome, Catholics worldwide sent money and volunteers for the Papal Army, which was commanded by General [[Christophe Léon Louis Juchault de Lamoricière|Louis Lamoricière]], a French exile.

The settling of the peninsular standoff now rested with Napoleon III. If he let Garibaldi have his way, Garibaldi would probably end the temporal sovereignty of the pope and make Rome the capital of Italy. Napoleon, however, may have arranged with Cavour to let the King of Sardinia free to take possession of Naples, [[Umbria]] and the other provinces, provided that Rome and the "[[Patrimony of Saint Peter]]" were left intact.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his102/notes/garibaldi.html|title=Garibaldi and the Risorgimento|first=Charles T. |last=Evans|publisher=Novaonline.nvcc.edu|access-date=30 September 2014}}</ref>

It was in this situation that a Sardinian force of two army corps, under generals [[Manfredo Fanti]] and [[Enrico Cialdini]], marched to the frontier of the Papal States, its objective being not Rome but Naples. The Papal troops under Lamoricière advanced against Cialdini, but were quickly defeated at the [[Battle of Castelfidardo]] and besieged in the fortress of [[Ancona]], finally surrendering on 29 September. On 9 October, Victor Emmanuel arrived and took command. There was no longer a Papal army to oppose him, and the march southward proceeded unopposed.

[[File:With Victor Emmanuel.jpg|thumb|[[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel]] meets Garibaldi near [[Teano]].]]
Garibaldi distrusted the pragmatic Cavour since Cavour was the man ultimately responsible for orchestrating the French annexation of the city of Nice, which was his birthplace. Nevertheless, he accepted the command of Victor Emmanuel. When the king entered [[Sessa Aurunca]] at the head of his army, Garibaldi willingly handed over his dictatorial power. After greeting Victor Emmanuel in [[Teano]] with the title of [[King of Italy]], Garibaldi entered Naples riding beside the king. Garibaldi then retired to the island of [[Caprera]], while the remaining work of unifying the peninsula was left to Victor Emmanuel.

The progress of the Sardinian army compelled Francis II to give up his line along the river, and he eventually took refuge with his best troops in the fortress of Gaeta. His courage boosted by his resolute young wife, Queen [[Marie Sophie of Bavaria|Marie Sophie]], Francis mounted a stubborn defence that lasted three months. But European allies refused to provide him with aid, food and munitions became scarce, and disease set in, so the garrison was forced to surrender. Nonetheless, ragtag groups of Neapolitans loyal to Francis fought on against the Italian government for years to come.

[[File:Corteo Reale all' Apertura del Parlamento del Regno d' Italia.jpg|thumb|[[Carlo Bossoli]]: the royal procession at the opening of the [[Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy]]]]
The fall of Gaeta brought the unification movement to the brink of fruition—only [[Lazio]] and [[Venetia (region)|Venetia]] remained to be added. On 18 February 1861, Victor Emmanuel assembled the deputies of the first [[Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy|Italian Parliament]] in Turin. On 17 March 1861, the [[Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy|Parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of Italy]], and on 27 March 1861 Rome was declared capital of Italy, although it was not yet in the new kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/regno-delle-due-sicilie/ |title=Regno Delle Due Sicilie nell'Enciclopedia Treccani |publisher=Treccani.it |access-date=28 January 2015}}</ref>

Borrowing from the old [[Latin]] title ''[[Pater Patriae]]'' of the [[Roman emperor]]s, the [[Italians]] gave to King Victor Emmanuel II the epithet of ''[[Father of the Fatherland]]'' ({{langx|it|Padre della Patria}}).<ref name="raicultura">{{cite web|url=https://www.raicultura.it/storia/articoli/2019/04/Vittorio-Emanuele-II-bb3018d0-6851-47f8-bedd-9211db07e064.html|title=Vittorio Emanuele II|language=it|access-date=17 March 2021}}</ref> Three months later Cavour died, having seen his life's work nearly completed. When he was given the last rites, Cavour purportedly said: "Italy is made. All is safe."{{sfn|Holt|1971|p=258}}

===The repercussions on diplomatic relations===
[[File:Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy.jpg|thumb|right|Painting depicting the [[proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy]] in 1861.]]
The disapproval of the various European states culminated in the direct participation of the Sardinian army in the [[Expedition of the Thousand]].<ref name=gnosis>{{cite web|url=http://www.sisde.it/Gnosis/Rivista26.nsf/ServNavig/57|title=Il problema della sicurezza ed il riconoscimento internazionale del Regno d'Italia|access-date=12 August 2011|language=it|archive-date=10 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210083512/http://www.sisde.it/Gnosis/Rivista26.nsf/ServNavig/57|url-status=dead}}</ref> In reaction, [[Spain]] and the [[Russian Empire]] interrupted diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Sardinia, while the [[Austrian Empire]], which had not maintained relations with this country since 1859, after the Second Italian War of Independence,<ref name=gnosis/> sent its troops to the [[Mincio]] border. [[France]] made no hostile statements, but recalled its ambassador. [[Queen Victoria]] and her prime minister [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|John Russell]] convinced the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] not to hinder the ongoing process of Italian unification.<ref name=cr>{{cite web|url=http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1860i.htm|title=Regno delle Due Sicilie - ultimo atto|access-date=12 August 2011|language=it|archive-date=2 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202132806/http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1860i.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 26 October 1860, the same day as the meeting in Teano between the king and Garibaldi, Austria organized a congress in [[Warsaw]] to apply measures against the Kingdom of Sardinia, without success; held back by this crisis, Cavour was unable to be present at Teano.<ref name=gnosis/>

After the creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Swiss Confederation]] were the first to recognize the new state (30 March 1861), followed by the [[United States]] on 13 April.<ref name=gnosis/><ref name="a150">{{cite web|language=it|url=http://www.150anni.it/webi/index.php?s=36&wid=101|title=La costruzione dello Stato e i nuovi indirizzi politici, Il difficile riconoscimento diplomatico|access-date=12 August 2011}}</ref> France negotiated the presence of French troops in Rome and recognized the Kingdom of Italy on 15 June, shortly after Cavour's death. It was then [[Portugal]]'s turn on 27 June, followed by [[Greece]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Scandinavia]]n countries. The recognition of the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] occurred in two phases: they recognized the new title of Victor Emmanuel II in July, then the kingdom in November, after a long clash between conservatives and liberals in the Belgian parliament over the latter.<ref name="a150"/>

===Roman Question===
{{Main|Roman Question}}
[[File:Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy.jpg|thumb|[[Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy]]]]

Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation of monarchical government and continued to agitate for a republic. With the motto "Free from the [[Alps]] to the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]]", the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. There were obstacles, however. A challenge against the pope's temporal dominion was viewed with profound distrust by Catholics around the world, and there were French troops stationed in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions.{{sfn|Smith|1969|pp=89–100}}

Nonetheless, Garibaldi believed that the government would support him if he attacked Rome. Frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs, he came out of retirement to organize a new venture. In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed again at Palermo, where he gathered volunteers for the campaign, under the slogan ''o Roma o Morte'' ('either Rome or Death'). The garrison of Messina, loyal to the king's instructions, barred their passage to the mainland. Garibaldi's force, now numbering two thousand, turned south and set sail from [[Catania]]. Garibaldi declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He landed at [[Melito di Porto Salvo|Melito]] on 14 August and marched at once into the [[Calabria]]n mountains.

[[File:The Injured Garibaldi in the Aspromonte Mountains (oil on canvas).jpg|thumb|''The Injured Garibaldi in the [[Aspromonte|Aspromonte Mountains]]'' (oil on canvas), credited to [[Gerolamo Induno]]]]
Far from supporting this endeavour, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Pallavicino, against the volunteer bands. On 28 August the two forces met at [[Battle of Aspromonte|Aspromonte]]. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several volleys followed, but Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy. The volunteers suffered several casualties, and Garibaldi himself was wounded; many were taken prisoner. Garibaldi was taken by steamer to [[Varignano, La Spezia|Varignano]], where he was honorably imprisoned for a time, but finally released.{{sfn|Smith|1969|pp=63–65}}

Meanwhile, Victor Emmanuel sought a safer means to the acquisition of the remaining Papal territory. He negotiated with the Emperor Napoleon for the removal of the French troops from Rome through a treaty. They agreed to the [[September Convention]] in September 1864, by which Napoleon agreed to withdraw the troops within two years. The pope was to expand his own army during that time so as to be self-sufficient. In December 1866, the last of the French troops departed from Rome, in spite of the efforts of the pope to retain them. By their withdrawal, Italy (excluding Venetia and Savoy) was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers.<ref>John W. Bush, ''Venetia Redeemed; Franco-Italian Relations, 1864–1866'' (Syracuse University Press, 1967).</ref>

The seat of government was moved in 1865 from [[Turin]], the old Sardinian capital, to [[Florence]]. This arrangement created such disturbances in Turin that the king was forced to leave that city hastily for his new capital.{{sfn|Smith|1969|pp=65–66}}