Editing Abolition of monarchy (section)

== 20th century ==

=== Nationalism ===

==== China ====

The [[monarchy of China]] ceased to exist in 1912 when the [[Xinhai Revolution]] led by [[Sun Yat-sen]] succeeded in overthrowing the young [[Puyi|Xuantong Emperor]]; this marked the end of the [[Qing dynasty]] and the start of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. In 1915, [[Yuan Shikai]] briefly proclaimed the [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Empire of China]] with himself as the emperor; the regime failed to gain legitimacy and collapsed three months later. In 1917, the Qing loyalist [[Zhang Xun]] sought to revive the Qing dynasty and briefly reinstalled the Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne; this attempt is known as the "[[Manchu Restoration]]" in historiography. The monarchy in parts of China was restored through the Japanese-sponsored client state known as [[Manchukuo]] with the former Qing emperor as its leader until the final abolition in 1945.

The area of [[Tibet]] was ruled by the [[Ganden Phodrang]] government which continued through the [[annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China]] until the [[1959 Tibetan uprising|Tibetan rebellion]] in 1959 where the monarchy in Tibet was dissolved although it continued in exile as the [[Central Tibetan Administration]] in India.

During the Xinhai Revolution, [[Outer Mongolia]] declared independence from the Qing dynasty of China in the [[Mongolian Revolution of 1911]]. The [[Bogd Khanate of Mongolia]] was subsequently proclaimed, although the Republic of China laid claims to Outer Mongolia and was widely recognized by the international community as having sovereignty over it. In 1924, the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] was established, bringing an end to the monarchy in Mongolia.

=== World War I and aftermath ===

==== Russian Empire ====

World War I led to perhaps the greatest number of abolition of monarchies in history. The conditions inside the Russian Empire and the poor performance in the war gave rise to a [[February Revolution|revolution]] which toppled the entire institution of the monarchy, followed by a [[October Revolution|second revolution]] against that government in October of the same year that executed Tsar ([[Imperator#Post-Roman use|Imperator]] (Императоръ)) [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] and implemented a [[Marxist-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] government. The [[Russian Civil War]] saw various monarchist, Republican, anarchist, nationalist and socialist factions fight each other with [[Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|bourgeois independence movements]] winning in the [[Baltic States]], Poland and Finland and the [[Bolsheviks]] winning everywhere else.

===={{anchor |de-at-tr-me}} Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Montenegro ====

The defeated [[German Empire|German]], [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] empires saw the abolition of their monarchies in the close aftermath of the war, ending the reigns of [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]], [[Charles I of Austria|Charles I]] and [[Mehmed VI]] respectively. The monarchs of the constituent states within the German Empire, most importantly [[Ludwig III of Bavaria]], [[Frederick Augustus III of Saxony]] and [[William II of Württemberg|Wilhelm II of Württemberg]], soon abdicated. During the war, monarchies were planned for [[Poland]] ([[Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)|Kingdom of Poland]]), the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]] (to have a [[Kingdom of Finland (1918)|Finnish King]]), and [[Lithuania]] ([[Mindaugas II of Lithuania]]), with a [[protectorate]]-like [[suzerainty]] exercised by the [[German Empire]]. Both intended kings renounced their thrones after Germany's defeat in November 1918. King [[Nicholas I of Montenegro]] lost his throne when the country became a part of Yugoslavia in 1918.

=== World War II and aftermath ===

==== Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Croatia ====

World War II saw another increased number of abolition of monarchies. In 1922, Benito Mussolini's [[March on Rome]] led to King Victor Emmanuel III appointing Mussolini Prime Minister. In 1939 [[Italian invasion of Albania|Italy invaded Albania]] and removed the reigning self-proclaimed [[King Zog]] and instated their own King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] as its new monarch. [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], along with the eastern European monarchies of [[Tsar of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–46)|Hungary]] and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] were forced to join with [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] by their dictators in World War II against the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], the [[Western allies]] and the [[Soviet Union]].  When Yugoslavia fell in 1941 the [[Independent State of Croatia]] was established under a nominal monarchy, but it was in fact a [[one party state]] under [[Ante Pavelić]] and a [[puppet state]] of Nazi Germany. With the fall of [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] in July 1943, the monarchy in Croatia was abolished. As the [[Axis powers]] were defeated in the war, communist partisans in [[Yugoslavia#Yugoslavia during World War II|occupied Yugoslavia]] and [[Military history of Albania during World War II|occupied Albania]] seized power and ended the monarchies. Communists in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania removed their monarchies with strong backing by the Soviet Union, which had many troops and supporters placed there during the course of the war. Through this, [[Peter II of Yugoslavia]], [[Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Simeon II of Bulgaria]] and [[Michael of Romania|Michael I of Romania]] all lost their thrones. King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]] had remained King after the [[Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy]] but transferred most of his powers to [[Umberto II of Italy|his son]] after the [[Armistice of Cassibile]]. After Victor Emmanuel abdicated to save the monarchy, a narrow [[1946 Italian constitutional referendum|referendum in 1946]] ended the short reign of his son King [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] and the Italian monarchy ceased to exist.

=== Republicanism ===

==== Australia (monarchy kept after referendum) ====

In a [[1999 Australian republic referendum|1999 referendum]], the voters of Australia rejected a proposal to replace the constitutional monarchy with a republic with a president appointed by Parliament. The proposal was rejected in all states, with only the [[Australian Capital Territory]] voting in favour. Though polling consistently showed a majority in favour of a republic, the result of the referendum was attributed to a split among republicans between those who supported the presented model and those who supported a directly elected president.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Turnbull|first=Malcolm|title=Fighting for the Republic|location=South Yarra|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|year=1999|page=250}}</ref><ref name="Vizard">{{Cite book|title=Two Weeks in Lilliput: Bear Baiting and Backbiting at the Constitutional Convention|author=Steve Vizard|author-link=Steve Vizard|publisher=Penguin|location=Ringwood (Vic)|year=1998|isbn=0-14-027983-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Higley|first=John|author2=Case, Rhonda|title=Australia: The Politics of Becoming a Republic|journal=Journal of Democracy|volume=11|issue=3|date=July 2000|pages=136–150|issn=1045-5736|doi=10.1353/jod.2000.0058|s2cid=153786108}}</ref><ref name="Steketee">{{Cite news|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/ten-years-after-the-referendum-we-are-no-closer-to-a-republic/story-e6frg6qo-1225792964973|title=Ten years after the referendum, we are no closer to a republic|last=Steketee|first=Mike|work=[[The Australian]]|date=31 October 2009|access-date=6 November 2009}}</ref>

==== Greece ====
In the [[modern history of Greece]], the monarchy was toppled in 1924, as a result of the [[National Schism]] and the [[Asia Minor Disaster]]. The resulting [[Second Hellenic Republic]] led a troubled existence, until a coup restored the monarchy in 1935. The subsequent dictatorial [[4th of August Regime]] was established with the support of King [[George II of Greece]], further delegitimizing the monarchy.

During the [[Axis occupation of Greece]], George II nominally led the [[Greek government in exile]], but the post-war fate of the monarchy was a major dividing issue for Greeks, especially with the rise of the pro-communist [[National Liberation Front (Greece)|National Liberation Front]] (EAM) as the country's largest resistance movement. As a compromise, the issue was to be determined by a referendum after the war. In the end, the threat of a post-war communist takeover led the [[Venizelist]] republicans to ally with the monarchists; with the defeat of EAM in the ''[[Dekemvriana]]'', the subsequent [[White Terror (Greece)|White Terror]], and the outbreak of the [[Greek Civil War]] in 1946 resulted in a monarchist victory in the [[1946 Greek referendum|1946 referendum]] and the return of George II to the country.

The last king, [[Constantine II of Greece|Constantine II]], interfered in politics during the [[Iouliana]] of 1965. The resulting political crisis led to a [[1967 Greek coup d'état|military coup]] in April 1967. Constantine II reluctantly accepted the ''fait accompli'' and lent it legitimacy, but when he tried to stage a counter-coup later that year, he was defeated and forced into exile. Greece formally remained a monarchy until it was abolished by the military junta in June 1973, followed by [[1973 Greek republic referendum|a July referendum confirming that decision]]. The restoration of the monarchy was overwhelmingly defeated, after constitutional legality was restored, by a free [[1974 Greek republic referendum|referendum in 1974]].

==== Spain ====

In Spain, the monarchy was again abolished in 1931 by the [[Second Spanish Republic]] (1931–1939). In [[1947 Spanish law of succession referendum|1947]], [[Spain under Franco|Francisco Franco]] declared Spain a [[monarchy]] but kept himself as [[regent]] for life with the constitutional setup essentially unchanged. Per the right the 1947 law granted him to decide ''who'' would be the future Spanish monarch, he appointed [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos of Bourbon]] his successor in 1969. The "[[Prince of Spain]]" became king at Franco's death in 1975, and during the [[Spanish transition to democracy]], the [[Spanish constitution of 1978]] put the monarchy on a new constitutional basis. The existence of monarchy in Spain is an [[entrenched clause]] with much stricter rules for [[constitutional amendment]] than other constitutional provisions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.congreso.es/consti/constitucion/indice/titulos/articulos.jsp?ini=166&fin=169&tipo=2|title = Título X. De la reforma constitucional – Constitución Española}}</ref>

==== Portugal ====

The monarchy of Portugal was also [[5 October 1910 revolution|overthrown]] in 1910, two years after the [[Lisbon Regicide|assassination]] of King [[Carlos I of Portugal|Carlos I]], ending the reign of [[Manuel II of Portugal|Manuel II]], who died in exile in England in 1932 without issue.

=== Communism, socialism, and Islamism ===

==== Afghanistan ====

In 1973, the monarchy of King [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]] of Afghanistan was abolished after a socialist-supported [[1973 Afghan coup d'état|coup d'état]] led by [[Mohammad Daoud Khan]], from the same [[Musahiban]] royal family, who declared himself the first [[President of Afghanistan]].

==== Ethiopia ====

Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]] was overthrown in 1974 as a result of the [[Ethiopian Revolution]], ending almost three millennia of monarchical rule in Ethiopia.

==== Indochina ====

In 1945, during the [[August Revolution]], [[Bảo Đại]] abdicated under the pressure of the [[Việt Minh]] led by [[Ho Chi Minh]]. This marked the end of the [[Nguyễn dynasty]] and the Vietnamese monarchy. From 1949 to 1955, Bảo Đại served as the ''Quốc Trưởng'' ({{lit|Chief of State}}) of the [[State of Vietnam]] and did not receive the title of ''Hoàng Đế'' ({{lit|Emperor}}).

Political upheaval and Communist insurrection put an end to the monarchies of [[Indochina]] after World War II: a short-lived attempt to leave a monarchical form of government in post-colonial [[South Vietnam]] came to naught in a [[1955 State of Vietnam referendum|fraudulent 1955 referendum]], a [[1970 Cambodian coup|military coup]] overthrew the kingless monarchy in Cambodia in 1970 and a [[Taking of Vientiane|Communist takeover]] ended the monarchy in Laos in 1975. Cambodia's monarchy later saw an unexpected rebirth under an internationally mediated peace settlement with former king [[Norodom Sihanouk]] being restored as a figurehead in 1993.

==== Iran ====

The [[Pahlavi dynasty]]'s rule in Iran ended following the [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979 overthrowing Shah [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] and leading to the [[1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum|establishment of an Islamic republic]].

=== Dictatorship ===

==== Arab countries ====

In some Arab countries, coups d'état replaced monarchies with military dictatorships.

The monarchy of Egypt was abolished in 1953, a year after the [[1952 Egyptian revolution|military overthrow]] of King [[Farouk of Egypt|Farouk]], which caused him to abdicate in favour of his infant son [[Fuad II of Egypt|Fuad II]]. The monarchy of Iraq ended in 1958 when King [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faisal II]] [[14 July Revolution|was killed and a republic proclaimed]]. The monarchy of Yemen was abolished in 1962 when King [[Muhammad al-Badr]] was overthrown in a coup, although he continued to resist his opponents until 1970. King [[Idris of Libya]] was overthrown by [[1969 Libyan revolution|a military coup]] led by [[Muammar Gaddafi]] in 1969.

=== Imperialism expansion and decolonisation ===

==== Commonwealth of Nations ====

Many monarchies were abolished in the middle of the 20th century or later as part of the process of decolonization. This included several [[Commonwealth realm]]s, which were sovereign states in [[personal union]] with the [[monarchy of the United Kingdom]].

The monarchy of Ireland was not abolished following the [[Irish war of independence]] in the 1920s. The [[Irish Free State]] was created as a separate state from the United Kingdom; it was nominally a monarchy but transitioned towards a more republican form of government throughout its existence. The [[Irish Constitution]] that [[Adoption of the Constitution of Ireland|came into force]] in 1937 [[Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949|left the question of Republic or monarchy vague]], but established a [[President of Ireland]], an office usually absent in monarchies. The monarchy was officially abolished by the [[Republic of Ireland Act]] of 1948, which came into force in 1949.

The monarchies of India, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, Guyana, and Malawi were abolished shortly after they became independent of the United Kingdom, whilst remaining within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. Others waited longer before abolishing their monarchies, such as Pakistan, South Africa, The Gambia, Sierra Leone, Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, and Mauritius. The latest country to become a [[republic within the Commonwealth]] was [[Barbados]] in 2021.

With the exceptions of Ireland and India, in each case the deposed monarch was [[Elizabeth II]]. Most realms which abolished their monarchy did so by declaring a new constitution or amending it to remove references to [[the Crown]], with the exception of Fiji, whose monarchy was abolished in 1987 following a [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|series of coups d'état]].

==== Korea ====

In 1910 the last emperor of Korea, [[Emperor Sunjong of the Korean Empire|Sunjong]], lost his throne when the country was annexed by Japan. However, the Korean royal family was mediatized as a puppet family within the Japanese imperial family. Many of the Korean royals were forcibly re-educated in Japan and forced to marry Japanese royalty and aristocrats to meld the ruling families of the two empires. With the abolition of the Japanese aristocracy and cadet branches of the imperial family, the Korean royals officially lost their remaining status.{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}

==== South Asia ====

The [[independence of India]] from the [[United Kingdom]] in 1947 posed a unique problem. From 1858, when the British government replaced [[Company Rule in India|Company rule]] with direct [[Crown rule in India|Crown rule]], it had been governed as a quasi-federation, with much of the country under the direct rule of the British monarch, who was styled as the [[Emperor of India]]. The remainder of the country, however, was under a form of indirect rule under him through its division into over 500 [[Constituent monarchies|subnational monarchies]], known as [[princely states]]; each was ruled by a prince who acknowledged the suzerainty of the Indian Emperor. The princely states ranged from powerful and largely independent principalities such as Hyderabad or Mysore, with a high level of autonomy, to tiny fiefdoms a few dozen acres (in the low tens of hectares) in size.

In 1947, it was agreed that India would be [[partition of India|partitioned]] into the independent British dominions of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], with the princely states acceding to one nation or the other. The accession process proceeded smoothly, with the notable exception of four of the most influential principalities. The Muslim ruler of the Hindu-majority state of Junagadh acceded to Pakistan, but his decision was overruled by the Indian government, while Hyderabad chose to be independent, but was forcibly annexed to India in 1948. The Hindu ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, among the largest and most powerful of the principalities, but with a Muslim-majority population, initially held off on a decision. In the autumn of 1947, an invading force from Pakistan frightened the ruler into acceding to India. The ruler of Kalat, in Baluchistan, declared his independence in 1947, after which the state was forcibly merged with Pakistan, resulting in an insurgency persisting to this day. With the promulgation of the Indian constitution in 1950, India abolished its monarchy under the British crown and became a Republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, followed by Pakistan in 1956; as a result of both developments, the majority of the princes formally lost their sovereign rights. A few remaining principalities in Pakistan retained their autonomy until 1969 when they finally acceded to Pakistan. The Indian government formally derecognized its princely families in 1971, followed by Pakistan in 1972.

Finally, in 1975, King [[Palden Thondup Namgyal]] of [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim]] lost his throne when the country became a state of [[India]] following a [[1975 Sikkimese monarchy referendum|referendum]].

=== New monarchies ===
The 20th century also saw the formation of a number of new monarchies that still exist to this day such as [[Bhutan]] (1907), [[Jordan]] (1921), [[Saudi Arabia]] (1932), and [[Malaysia]] (1957).