Editing Almohad Caliphate (section)

==== Calligraphy and manuscripts ====
The Almohad dynasty embraced a style of cursive [[Maghrebi script]] known today as "Maghrebi thuluth" as an official style used in manuscripts, coinage, documents, and architecture.<ref name=":8" /> However, the more angular [[Kufic|Kufic script]] was still used, albeit in a reworked form in Qur'an epigraphy, and was seen detailed in silver in some colophons.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Streit |first=Jessica |title=Monumental Austerity: The Meanings And Aesthetic Development Of Almohad Friday Mosques |publisher=Cornell University |type=PhD |year=2013 |page=52 |hdl=1813/34025 }}</ref><ref name=":7">Bongianino, Umberto (18 May 2021). ''Untold Stories of Maghrebi Qur'ans (12th-14th centuries)'' (Lecture).</ref> The Maghrebi thuluth script, frequently written in gold, was used to give emphasis when standard writing, written in rounded Maghrebi mabsūt script, was considered insufficient.<ref name=":8" /> Maghrebi mabsūt of the [[al-Andalus]] region during the 12th to 14th centuries was characterized by elongated lines, stretched out curves, and the use of multiple colors for vocalizations, as derived from the people of Medina.<ref name=":7" />

Scribes and calligraphers of the Almohad period also started to [[Illuminated manuscript|illuminate]] words and phrases in manuscripts for emphasis, using [[gold leaf]] and [[lapis lazuli]].<ref name=":9">Barrucand, Marianne (1995). ''Remarques sur le decor des manuscrit religeux hispano-maghrebin du moyen-age''. Paris: Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques. p. 240-243. {{ISBN|2-7355-0241-4}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> While much of the script was written in black or brown ink, the use of [[Polychrome|polychromy]] for diacritical text and vocalizations also marked a departure from previous caliphates' calligraphic styles.<ref name=":7" /> Blue dots were used to indicate elif, orange dots denoted [[hamza]], and yellow semicircles to marked [[shadda]]h.<ref name=":7" /> Separate sets of verses were denoted by various medallions, with distinctive designs for each set. For example, sets of five verses were ended with bud-like medallions while sets of ten were marked by circular medallions, all of which were typically painted in gold.<ref name=":9" /> Manuscripts attributed to this caliphate were characterized by interlacing geometric or recti-curvilinear illuminations, and abstract vegetal artwork and large medallions were often present in the margins and as thumbnails.<ref name=":9" /> Composite floral [[finial]]s were also frequently used in decorating the margins and corners of the page.<ref name=":9" /> Color schemes focused on primarily using gold, white, and blue, with accentuating elements in red or pink.<ref name=":9" />

During the Almohad dynasty, the act of bookbinding itself took on great importance, with a notable instance of the Almohad caliph [[Abd al-Mu'min]] bringing in artisans for a celebration of the binding of a Qur'an imported from [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Khemir|first=Sabiha|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain|chapter=The Arts of the Book|title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain|publisher=MetPublications|year=1992|isbn=978-0-87099-636-8|editor-last=Dodds|editor-first=Jerrilynn|location=New York, N.Y.|page=124}}</ref> Books were most frequently bound in goatskin leather and decorated with polygonal interlacing, [[Goffering iron|goffering]], and stamping. The primary materials used for the pages were goat or sheep [[vellum]].<ref name=":5" /> However, the Almohad dynasty also saw industrial advancements in the spread of paper mills in [[Seville]] and [[Marrakesh]], leading to the introduction of paper for Qur'an manuscripts, illuminated doctrine books, and official documents.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10">Barrucand, Marianne (2005). ''Les Enluminares de l'Epoque Almohade: Frontispices et Unwans''. Estudios Arabes e Islamicos. p. 72-74.</ref> Most Qur'anic manuscripts were close to square-shaped, though other religious texts were typically vertically oriented. With the exception of a few large-scale Qur'ans, most were modestly sized, ranging from 11 centimenters to 22 centimeters on each side, with 19 to 27 lines of script each page.<ref name=":10" /> In contrast, large-sized Qur'ans were typically approximately 60 centimeters by 53 centimeters and had an average of five to nine lines of script to a page, typically in Maghrebi thuluth.<ref name=":10" />

[[Hadith Bayad wa Riyad|Hadith Bayāḍ wa Riyāḍ]], the love story of Bayad and Riyad, is one of the few remaining illustrated manuscripts dated to 13th century Almohad caliphate.<ref name=":5" /> Its use of miniatures displays a clear connection with previous illustrated tradition from the eastern Islamic world. However, it deviates in its depictions of the frontispiece, interior, and teaching scenes, which show similarities to scientific manuscripts from the central Islamic world, typically considered to have consisted of the Arabian peninsula, northeast modern Iran, and the Fertile Crescent.<ref name=":11">Robinson, Cynthia (2007). Contadini, A. (ed.). ''Love Localized and Science from Afar: "Arab Painting", Iberian Courtly Culture, and the Hadith Bayad wa Riyad''. Brill. pp. 104–114. {{ISBN|978-90-474-2237-2}}.</ref> Depictions of architecture specific to the Almohad caliphate are also evident in several places in the manuscript.<ref name=":11" />[[File:Quran of Abu Hafs al-Murtada (Morocco exhibit).jpg|thumb|A copy of the [[Quran|Qur'an]] personally transcribed by Caliph [[Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada|al-Murtada]], circa 1266]]The penultimate Almohad caliph, [[Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada|Abu Hafs al-Murtada]], was a notable calligrapher in his own right and composed poems and copied Qur'ans. A known bibliophile, he frequently endowed books to madrasas and mosques and established the first public manuscript transcription center in Marrakesh.<ref name=":8" /> One of the large Qur'ans that he copied has been preserved in Marrakesh and is the oldest surviving example in the western Islamic world of a Qur'an personally produced by a sovereign ruler. The 10-volume tome is written on parchment and bound with a leather cover decorated with a geometric motif, exhibiting the first dated use of gold tooling on a manuscript binding.<ref>Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009), "Almohad", ''The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture'', Oxford University Press, {{doi|10.1093/acref/9780195309911.001.0001/acref-9780195309911-e-70}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-530991-1}}, retrieved 2021-05-04</ref> The verses are written in Maghrebi mabsūt script and the end of each verse is marked by a gold circle divided into eight uniform segments. Using large Maghrebi script, there are five to 10 lines to a page, with relatively few words to each line. There is lavish use of gold, and this Qur'an, as with other Qur'ans of this size, was likely intended for court use.<ref>Blair, Sheila (2008). ''Islamic Calligraphy''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh. pp. 227–228. {{ISBN|978-1-4744-6447-5}}.</ref>