Editing Architecture of India (section)

=== Sultanate ===
[[Indo-Islamic architecture#Pre-Mughal Regional Architecture|Significant regional styles]] developed in the independent sultanates formed when the Tughlaq empire weakened in the mid-14th century, and lasted until most were absorbed into the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. Apart from the sultanates of the Deccan Plateau, Gujarat, Bengal, and Kashmir, the architecture of the [[Malwa Sultanate#Malwa architecture|Malwa]] and [[Jaunpur Sultanate#Art and architecture|Jaunpur sultanates]] also left some significant buildings.<ref>Harle, 428–432</ref>

==== Delhi Sultanate ====
[[File:Under The Shade - Tomb of Muhammad Shah - Delhi - DSC 0001 02.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Muhammad Shah, [[Lodi Gardens]]]]
The start of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1206 under [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]] introduced a large Islamic state to India, using Central Asian styles.<ref>Harle, 423–424</ref>  The important [[Qutb Complex]] in Delhi was begun under [[Muhammad of Ghor]], by 1199, and continued under Qutb al-Din Aibak and later sultans. The [[Qutb complex#Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque|Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque]], now a ruin, was the first structure. Like other early Islamic buildings it re-used elements such as columns from destroyed Hindu and [[Jain]] temples, including one on the same site whose platform was reused. The arches were [[Corbel arch|corbelled]] in the traditional Indian way.<ref>Yale, 164–165; Harle, 423–424; Blair & Bloom, 149</ref> [[Qutb Minar complex#Alai Minar of Khalji|Alai Minar]], a minaret twice the size of [[Qutb Minar]] was commissioned by [[Alauddin Khalji|Alauddin Khilji]] but never completed. Other examples include the [[Tughlaqabad Fort]] and [[Hauz Khas Complex]].
[[File:Qutb complex (Q1074330)- Mehrauli- Delhi -N-DL-93 2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Qutb Minar complex|Qutb complex]]]]
Another very early mosque, begun in the 1190s, is the [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] in [[Ajmer]], [[Rajasthan]], built for the same Delhi rulers, again with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple columns (and possibly some new ones) are piled up in threes to achieve extra height. Both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them, probably under Iltutmish a couple of decades later.

At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped, for the first time in India.<ref>Blair & Bloom, 149–150; Harle, 425</ref> By around 1300 true domes and arches with [[voussoir]]s were being built; the ruined [[Tomb of Balban]] (d. 1287) in Delhi may be the earliest survival.<ref>Harle, 425</ref>  The [[Alai Darwaza]] gatehouse at the Qutb complex, from 1311, still shows a cautious approach to the new technology, with very thick walls and a shallow dome, only visible from a certain distance or height. Bold contrasting colours of masonry, with red [[sandstone]] and white [[marble]], introduce what was to become a common feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia. The pointed arches come together slightly at their base, giving a mild [[horseshoe arch]] effect, and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized "spearhead" projections, possibly representing [[lotus flower|lotus]] buds. [[Jali]], stone [[openwork]] screens, are introduced here; they already had been long used in temples.<ref>Blair & Bloom, 151</ref>

By the time of Tughlaqs Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian architecture, such as the use of a high [[plinth]],<ref>Blair & Bloom, 149</ref> and often [[Molding (decorative)|mouldings]] around its edges, as well as columns and brackets and [[hypostyle]] halls.<ref>Blair & Bloom, 156</ref>  After the death of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined, and the following Delhi dynasties were weak. Most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs, although the impressive [[Lodi Gardens|Lodi Gardens in Delhi]] (adorned with fountains, ''[[charbagh]]'' gardens, ponds, tombs and mosques) were constructed by the late Lodi dynasty. The architecture of other regional Muslim states was often more impressive.<ref>Harle, 426; Blair & Bloom, 156</ref>

==== Deccan Sultanates ====
Dawood Shah of Bahamani Sultanate ruled for very short amount of time in 1378 but invented a new style of tomb, comprising two similar, domed structures on a single basement, a style not seen anywhere outside [[Gulbarga|Kalaburagi]]. [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah|Firuz Shah]] who died in 1422 copied the double-chambered style but made his tomb much simpler. The black basalt door jambs reminiscent of temple pillars, the recessed arches bearing stucco floral work, arches bearing stucco floral work, and the [[Chhajja|chajjas]] borne on brackets that resemble those found in temples all become common features in later Bahmani architecture. Rangin Mahal in [[Bidar Fort]], built by [[Ali Barid Shah I|Ali Barid Shah]] in the 1500s. While the beautiful tile mosaics on some of its walls and the luminescent mother-of-pearl inlays on black basalt are Persian in style, its carved wooden pillars and brackets are clearly derived from local residential architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-27|title=Alluring Bahmani architecture|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/alluring-bahmani-architecture-749973.html|access-date=2021-07-16|website=Deccan Herald|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190630/https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/alluring-bahmani-architecture-749973.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:IBRAHIMROZA FULL.jpg|left|thumb|Burial place of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]]]
The main architectural activities for the [[Barid Shahi dynasty|Barid Shahi]] rulers were building garden tombs. The tomb of Ali Barid Shah (1577) is the most notable monument in [[Bidar]].{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=152}} The tomb consists of a lofty domed chamber, open on four sides, located in the middle of a Persian four-square garden. The ''Rangin Mahal'' in Bidar, built during the reign of Ali Barid Shah, is a complete and exquisitely decorated courtly structure. Other important monuments in Bidar from this period are the tomb of Qasim II and the Kali Masjid.<ref name="michell_77">Michell, George & Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, {{ISBN|0-521-56321-6}}, p. 14 & pp. 77–80.</ref>
[[File:Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima Khanam 2.jpg|thumb|Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima Khanam]]
Amongst the major architectural works in the [[Bijapur Sultanate]], one of the earliest is the unfinished [[Jama Mosque, Bijapur|Jami Masjid]], which was begun by Ali Adil Shah I in 1576. It has an arcaded prayer hall, with fine aisles, and has an impressive dome supported by massive piers. One of the most impressive monuments built during the reign of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II|Ibrahim II]] was the [[Ibrahim Rauza|Ibrahim Rouza]] which was originally planned as a tomb for queen Taj Sultana, but was later converted into the tomb for Ibrahim Adil Shah II and his family. This complex, completed in 1626, consists of a paired tomb and mosque.

Notable buildings of the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani]] and [[Deccan sultanates]] in the Deccan include the [[Charminar]], [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Mecca Masjid]], [[Qutb Shahi tombs]], [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa|Madrasa Mahmud Gawan]] and [[Gol Gumbaz]].<ref name="michell_77" />{{Sfn|Haig|1907|p=209-216}}The greatest monument in Bijapur is the [[Gol Gumbaz]], the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, which was completed in 1656, and whose hemispherical dome measures {{convert|44|m}} across.

One of the earliest architectural achievements of the Qutb Shahi dynasty is the [[Golconda|fortified city of Golconda]], which is now in ruins. In the 16th century, [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]] decided to shift the capital to [[Hyderabad]], {{convert|8|km}} east of Golconda. Here, he constructed the most original monument in the Deccan, the [[Charminar]], in the heart of the new city.<ref name=":0" /> This monument, completed in 1591, has four minarets, each {{convert|56|m}}.

==== Bengal Sultanate ====
The style of the [[Bengal Sultanate]] mostly used brick, with characteristic features being indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex [[terracotta]] ornamentation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Architecture |title=Architecture |website=Banglapedia |access-date=30 December 2017 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116231638/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Architecture |url-status=live }}</ref> which were with blended. One feature in the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets.<ref name="Hasan, Perween 2007 p. 23-27">Hasan, Perween (2007). Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. United Kingdom: I.B. Tauris. p. 23–27. {{ISBN|1-84511-381-0}}.</ref> Many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic [[Niche (architecture)|niche]] [[mihrab]]s, were constructed throughout the region.<ref name="Hasan, Perween 2007 p. 23-27" />[[File:Firoze Minar at Gaur in Malda district 10.jpg|left|thumb|[[Firoz Minar|Firoze Minar]] at [[Gauḍa (city)|Gaur]]]]These features are also seen in the [[Choto Sona Mosque]] (around 1500), which is in stone, unusually for Bengal, but shares the style and mixes domes and a curving "paddy" roof based on village house roofs made of vegetable thatch. Such roofs feature even more strongly in later [[Bengal temple architecture|Bengal Hindu temple architecture]], with types of style such as the [[do-chala]], [[Jor-bangla Style]], and [[char-chala]].<ref>Hasan, 23–25</ref>  For larger mosques, Bengali architects multiplied the numbers of domes, with a nine-domed formula (three rows of three) being one option, surviving in four examples, all 15th or 16th century and now in Bangladesh,<ref>Hasan, 41–44</ref> although there were others with larger numbers of domes.<ref>Hasan, 44–49</ref>
[[File:Adina Mosque at Malda district of West Bengal 13.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[hypostyle]] hall of the [[Adina Mosque]]]]
The largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent was the 14th century [[Adina Mosque]]. Built of stone demolished from temples, it featured a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the subcontinent. The mosque was modelled on the imperial [[Sasanian|Sassanian]] style of Persia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bengal|title=BENGAL – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=Iranicaonline.org|access-date=30 December 2017|archive-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103102347/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bengal|url-status=live}}</ref> The Sultanate style flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. A provincial style influenced by North India evolved in Mughal Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Mughals also copied the Bengali [[do-chala]] roof tradition for mausoleums{{which|date=June 2020}} in North India.<ref>Petersen, Andrew (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. pp. 33–35. {{ISBN|1-134-61366-0}}.</ref>

Although the description in [[Pandua, Hooghly|Pandua]], the ancient capital, shows mainly Persian culture in courts, we find one of the first attempts at fusing together the Islamic and Bengali style of architecture under [[Ilyas Shahi dynasty]] who ruled then. Under [[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah|Jalaludin]] emerged the 'Bengal' style of mosques. With Jalaludin's reign we see the beginnings of a trend of Muslim ruling dynasty that grounded itself in local culture rather than seeking legitimacy from Delhi or Mecca. Upon his return to Delhi from his first Bengal expedition, Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Kotla Mosque, which bear a striking resemblance to the Bengal style.

==== Kashmir ====
[[File:Jama Masjid, Srinagar (14363005587).jpg|thumb|[[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar]] ]]
By 1339, Shams-ud-din Shah Mir of the [[Shah Mir dynasty]] established a sultanate encompassing the [[Kashmir|region of Kashmir]] (consisting of modern-day [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], [[Azad Kashmir]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Ladakh]], and [[Aksai Chin]]), allowing for the gradual Islamization of the region and the hybridization of Persianate culture and architecture with the indigenous Buddhist styles of Kashmir. In the capital at [[Srinagar]] in modern Indian-administered Kashmir, [[Sikandar Shah Miri|Sikandar Shah Mir]] constructed the [[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar|Jamia Masjid]], a large wooden congregational mosque that incorporates elements two cultures, that is, it has been erected in Persian style but its minar is topped with umbrella-shaped finial, which is in similitude with Buddhist pagoda structure, as well as the wooden [[Khanqah-e-Moula]]h mosque. Also in Srinagar are the [[Aali Mosque|Aali Masjid]] and the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin. Two 14th-century wooden mosques in [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] are the [[Chaqchan Mosque]] in [[Khaplu]] (1370) and the [[Amburiq Mosque]] in [[Shigar]]. Both have stone-built cores with elaborately carved wooden exterior galleries, at Amburiq on two levels, in an adaptation of traditional local styles.

==== Gujarat sultanate ====
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Under the [[Gujarat Sultanate]], independent between 1407 and 1543, Gujarat was a prosperous regional sultanate under the rule of the [[Muzaffarids (Gujarat)|Muzaffarid dynasty]], who built lavishly, particularly in the capital, [[Ahmedabad]], in its distinctive style of Indo-Islamic architecture. The sultanate commissioned mosques such as the [[Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad|Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad]], [[Jama Mosque, Champaner|Jama Masjid at Champaner]], [[Jami Mosque, Khambhat|Jami Masjid at Khambhat]], [[Qutbuddin Mosque]], [[Rani Rupamati's Mosque|Rani Rupamati Mosque]], [[Sarkhej Roza]], [[Sidi Bashir Mosque]], [[Kevada Mosque]], [[Sidi Saiyyed Mosque|Sidi Sayyed Mosque]], [[Nagina Mosque]] and Pattharwali Masjid, as well as structures such as [[Teen Darwaza]], [[Bhadra Fort]] and the [[Dada Harir Stepwell]] in Ahmedabad.

The distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat drew micro-architectural elements from earlier [[Māru-Gurjara architecture|Maru-Gurjara architecture]] and employed them in [[mihrab]], roofs, doors, minarets and facades. In the 15th century, the Indo-Islamic style of Gujarat is especially notable for its inventive and elegant use of [[minaret]]s. They are often in pairs flanking the main entrance, mostly rather thin and with elaborate carving at least at the lower levels. Some designs push out balconies at intervals up the shaft; the most extreme version of this was in the lost upper parts of the so-called "shaking minarets" at the [[Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad]], which fell down in [[1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake|an earthquake in 1819]]. This carving draws on the traditional skills of local stone-carvers, previously exercised on Hindu temples in the Māru-Gurjara and other local styles.

Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat presages many of the architectural elements later found in [[Mughal architecture]], including ornate ''[[mihrab]]s'' and minarets, ''[[jali]]'' (perforated screens carved in stone), and ''[[chattri]]s'' (pavilions topped with [[cupola]]s).

The [[Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park]], the 16th century capital of Gujarat Sultanate, documents the early Islamic and pre-[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] city that has remained without any change.