Editing Attachment theory (section)

==Attachment styles in adults==
{{Main|Attachment in adults}}{{See also|Attachment measures}}
Attachment theory was extended to adult [[romantic relationship]]s in the late 1980s by Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hazan|first1=Cindy|last2=Shaver|first2=Phillip|date=1987|title=Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-21950-001|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=52|issue=3|pages=511–524|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511|pmid=3572722|s2cid=2280613 |via=APA PsycNet|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Four styles of attachment have been identified in adults: secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant and fearful-avoidant. These roughly correspond to infant classifications: secure, insecure-ambivalent, insecure-avoidant and disorganized/disoriented.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hazan|first1=Cindy|last2=Shaver|first2=Phillip R.|date=1990|title=Love and work: An attachment-theoretical perspective.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.270|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=59|issue=2|pages=270–280|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.270|issn=0022-3514|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Securely attached ===

Securely attached adults have been "linked to a high need for achievement and a low fear of failure (Elliot & Reis, 2003)". They will positively approach a task with the goal of mastering it and have an appetite for exploration in achievement settings (Elliot & Reis, 2003). Research shows that securely attached adults have a "low level of personal distress and high levels of concern for others".<ref name="ams">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahmad S, Mohammad H, Shafique Z |date=2018 |title=The impact of attachment styles on helping behavior in adults |journal=Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=24–29}}</ref> Due to their high rates of [[self-efficacy]], securely attached adults typically do not hesitate to remove a person having a negative impact from problematic situations they are facing.<ref name="ams"/> This calm response is representative of the securely attached adult's emotionally regulated response to threats that many studies have supported in the face of diverse situations. Adult secure attachment comes from an individual's early connection with their caregiver(s), genes and their romantic experiences.<ref name="levine">{{cite book| vauthors = Levine A, Heller R |year=2011 |title=Attached: The new science of adult attachment and how it can help you find and keep love |location=New York, NY |publisher= Penguin Group}}</ref>

Within romantic relationships, a securely attached adult will appear in the following ways: excellent conflict resolution, mentally flexible, effective communicators, avoidance of manipulation, comfortable with closeness without fearfulness of being enmeshed, quickly forgiving, viewing sex and emotional intimacy as one, believing they can positively impact their relationship, and caring for their partner in the way they want to be cared for. In summation, they are great partners who treat their partners very well, as they are not afraid to give positively and ask for their needs to be met. Securely attached adults believe that there are "many potential partners that would be responsive to their needs", and if they come across an individual who is not meeting their needs, they will typically lose interest quickly.<ref name="levine"/>

=== Anxious-preoccupied ===
[[Anxious-preoccupied_attachment|Anxious preoccupied]] adults seek high levels of intimacy, approval and responsiveness from partners, becoming overly dependent. They tend to be less trusting, have less positive views about themselves than their partners, and may exhibit high levels of emotional expressiveness, worry and impulsiveness in their relationships. The anxiety that adults feel prevents the establishment of satisfactory defence exclusion. Thus, it is possible that individuals that have been anxiously attached to their attachment figure or figures have not been able to develop sufficient defences against separation anxiety. Because of their lack of preparation these individuals will then overreact to the anticipation of separation or the actual separation from their attachment figure. The anxiety comes from an individual's intense and/or unstable relationship that leaves the anxious or preoccupied individual relatively defenceless.<ref name="Sperling, Michael B. 1994">{{cite book | last1 = Sperling | first1 = Michael B. | first2 = William H. | last2 = Berman | title = Attachment in Adults: Clinical and Developmental Perspectives | publisher = Guilford Press | date = 1994 }}</ref>

In terms of adult relationships, if an adult experiences this inconsistent behaviour from their romantic partner or acquaintance, they might develop some of the aspects of this attachment type. Besides, insecurity and distress about relationships can be driven by individuals who exhibit inconsistent connection or emotionally abusive behaviours.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-03 |title=Preoccupied Attachment Style: How It Develops & How To Cope |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/anxious-preoccupied-attachment.html |access-date=2023-08-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> However, a secure relationship can also reduce anxious behaviour and be a resource for safety and support.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Jeffry A. |last2=Overall |first2=Nickola C. |date=February 2014 |title=Partner Buffering of Attachment Insecurity |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=54–59 |doi=10.1177/0963721413510933 |issn=0963-7214 |pmc=4157676 |pmid=25214722}}</ref>

=== Dismissive-avoidant ===

Dismissive-avoidant adults desire a high level of independence, often appearing to avoid attachment altogether.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pettigrew |first=Thomas F. |date=2016-01-04 |title=In Pursuit of Three Theories: Authoritarianism, Relative Deprivation, and Intergroup Contact |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033327 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033327 |pmid=26361053 |s2cid=207668034 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref> They view themselves as self-sufficient, invulnerable to attachment feelings and not needing close relationships.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aluisy |first=Ana |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/974240408 |title=Reinvent your relationship. A Therapist's Insights to having the Relationship You've Always Wanted |date=2016 |publisher=Morgan James Publishing |isbn=978-1-63047-896-4 |location=[United States] |oclc=974240408}}</ref> They tend to suppress their feelings, dealing with conflict by distancing themselves from partners of whom they often have a poor opinion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zahra |first=Fatima Tu |date=2022-10-06 |title=Attachment Security and Attachment Styles in Romantic Relationships |url=https://acspublisher.com/journals/index.php/sajssh/article/view/2662 |journal=South Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=42–53 |doi=10.48165/sajssh.2022.3504 |s2cid=252863935 |issn=2582-7065|doi-access=free }}</ref> Adults lack the interest of forming close relationships and maintaining emotional closeness with the people around them. They have a great amount of distrust in others, but at the same time possess a positive model of self; they would prefer to invest in their own ego skills. They try to create high levels of self-esteem by investing disproportionately in their abilities or accomplishments. These adults maintain their positive views of self, based on their personal achievements and competence rather than searching for and feeling acceptance from others. These adults will explicitly reject or minimize the importance of emotional attachment and passively avoid relationships when they feel as though they are becoming too close. They strive for self-reliance and independence. When it comes to the opinions of others about themselves, they are very indifferent and are relatively hesitant to internalize positive feedback from their peers. Dismissive avoidance is considered to be the result of defensive deactivation and disconnection to avoid potential rejection, and is in some cases amplified by a genuine disinterest in social connection.<ref name="No Man Is an Island: The Need to Be">{{cite journal | last1 = Carvallo | first1 = Mauricio | last2 = Gabriel | first2 = Shira | year = 2006 | title = No Man Is an Island: The Need to Belong and Dismissing Avoidant Attachment Style | journal = PsycEXTRA Dataset | volume =  32| issue = 5| pages = 697–709 | doi = 10.1037/e511092014-160 | pmid = 16702161 }}</ref>

Adults with dismissive-avoidant patterns are less likely to seek social support than other attachment styles.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lopez |first1=F. G. |title=Oxford handbook of positive psychology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-986216-0 |pages=(pp. 405–415) |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-05143-038 |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref> They are likely to fear intimacy and lack confidence in others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hazen, C. & Shaver, P. |title=Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=1987 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=511–524 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511|pmid=3572722 |s2cid=2280613 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Collins, N. L., & Read, S. J. |title=Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=1990 |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=644–663 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.58.4.644|pmid=14570079 |s2cid=3143987 }}</ref> Because of their distrust they cannot be convinced that other people have the ability to deliver emotional support.<ref name="No Man Is an Island: The Need to Be"/> Under a high cognitive load, however, dismissive-avoidant adults appear to have a lowered ability to suppress difficult attachment-related emotions, as well difficulty maintaining positive self-representations.<ref name="Attachment-Related Strategies Durin">{{cite journal |last1=Mikulincer, M., Dolev, T., & Shaver, P. R. |title=Attachment-Related Strategies During Thought Suppression: Ironic Rebounds and Vulnerable Self-Representations. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=2004 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=940–956 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.940|pmid=15598116 }}</ref> This suggests that hidden vulnerabilities may underlie an active denial process.<ref name="Attachment-Related Strategies Durin"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown, D. P., & Elliott, D. S. |title=Attachment disturbances in adults: Treatment for comprehensive repair |date=2016 |publisher=W W Norton & Co. |page=111 |edition=1}}</ref>

=== Fearful-avoidant ===

Fearful-avoidant adults have mixed feelings about close relationships, both desiring and feeling uncomfortable with emotional closeness. The dangerous part about the contrast between wanting to form social relationships while simultaneously fearing the relationship is that it creates mental instability. This mental instability then translates into mistrusting the relationships they do form and also viewing themselves as unworthy. Furthermore, fearful-avoidant adults also have a less pleasant outlook on life compared to anxious-preoccupied and dismissive avoidant groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dan |first=O |date=2020 |title=The relationship between individuals with fearful-avoidant adult attachment orientation and early neural responses to emotional content: An event-related potentials (ERPs) study. |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-66179-001 |journal=Neuropsychology |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=155–167 |doi=10.1037/neu0000600 |pmid=31682140 |s2cid=207891295 |via=APA PsychArticles|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  Like dismissive-avoidant adults, fearful-avoidant adults tend to seek less intimacy, suppressing their feelings.<ref name="Hazan, Shaver, 1987"/><ref name="Hazan, Shaver,1990">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hazan C, Shaver PR |s2cid=53487697 |year=1990 |title=Love and work: An attachment theoretical perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1990-08_59_2/page/270 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=270–80 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.270}}</ref><ref name="Hazan, Shaver,1994">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hazan C, Shaver PR |year=1994 |title=Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=5 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0501_1}}</ref><ref name="BarthoHoro">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bartholomew K, Horowitz LM | s2cid = 3547883 | title = Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1991-08_61_2/page/226 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 61 | issue = 2 | pages = 226–44 | date = August 1991 | pmid = 1920064 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226 }}</ref>

According to research studies, an individual with a fearful avoidant attachment might have had childhood trauma or persistently negative perceptions and actions from their family members. Apart from these, genetic factors and personality may also have an impact on how an individual behaves with parents as well as how they understand their relationships in their adulthood.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-28 |title=What is a fearful avoidant attachment? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/fearful-avoidant-attachments |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Assessing and measuring attachment ===

Two main aspects of adult attachment have been studied. The organization and stability of the mental working models that underlie the attachment styles is explored by social psychologists interested in romantic attachment.<ref name="Fraley, Shaver, 2000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fraley RC, Shaver PR |year=2000 |title=Adult romantic attachment: Theoretical developments, emerging controversies, and unanswered questions |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=132–54 |citeseerx=10.1.1.471.8896 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132|s2cid=15620444 }}</ref><ref name="Pietro">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pietromonaco PR, Barrett LF |s2cid=17413696 |year=2000 |title=The internal working models concept: What do we really know about the self in relation to others? |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=155–75 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.155}}</ref> Developmental psychologists interested in the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment generally explore how attachment functions in relationship dynamics and impacts relationship outcomes. The organization of mental working models is more stable while the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment fluctuates more. Some authors have suggested that adults do not hold a single set of working models. Instead, on one level they have a set of rules and assumptions about attachment relationships in general. On another level they hold information about specific relationships or relationship events. Information at different levels need not be consistent. Individuals can therefore hold different internal working models for different relationships.<ref name="Pietro" /><ref name="Rholes, Simpson, 2004">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Attachment theory: Basic concepts and contemporary questions |encyclopedia=Adult Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Implications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |pages=3–14 |isbn=978-1-59385-047-0 |vauthors=Rholes WS, Simpson JA |veditors=Rholes WS, Simpson JA}}</ref>

There are a number of different measures of adult attachment, the most common being self-report questionnaires and coded interviews based on the [[Attachment measures#Adult Attachment Interview .28AAI.29|Adult Attachment Interview]]. The various measures were developed primarily as research tools, for different purposes and addressing different domains, for example romantic relationships, platonic relationships, parental relationships or peer relationships. Some classify an adult's state of mind with respect to attachment and attachment patterns by reference to childhood experiences, while others assess relationship behaviours and security regarding parents and peers.<ref name="crofrasha">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Measurement of Individual Differences in Adolescent and Adult Attachment |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=599–634 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Crowell JA, Fraley RC, Shaver PR |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref>

=== Associations of adult attachment with other traits ===

Adult attachment styles are related to individual differences in the ways in which adults experience and manage their emotions. Recent meta-analyses link insecure attachment styles to lower [[emotional intelligence]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Sarah|last2=Double|first2=Kit S|last3=Kunst|first3=Hannah|last4=Zhang|first4=Michael|last5=MacCann|first5=Carolyn|date=2022|title=Emotional intelligence and attachment in adulthood: A meta-analysis|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=184|page=111174|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2021.111174 | issn=0191-8869 |url=https://psyarxiv.com/36zcr/ }}</ref> and lower trait mindfulness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stevenson|first1=Jodie C.|last2=Emerson|first2=Lisa-Marie|last3=Millings|first3=Abigail|date=December 2017|title=The Relationship Between Adult Attachment Orientation and Mindfulness: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=Mindfulness|language=en|volume=8|issue=6|pages=1438–1455|doi=10.1007/s12671-017-0733-y|issn=1868-8527|pmc=5693974|pmid=29201245}}</ref>