Editing Blood transfusion (section)

== History ==
Beginning with [[William Harvey]]'s experiments on the circulation of blood, recorded research into blood transfusion began in the 17th century, with successful experiments in transfusion between animals. However, successive attempts by physicians to transfuse animal blood into humans gave variable, often fatal, results.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RmM9AQAAIAAJ&q=carbonic+oxide|title=Scientific American|date=1869|publisher=Munn & Company|pages=122|language=en|access-date=2021-08-08|archive-date=2024-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307231121/https://books.google.com/books?id=RmM9AQAAIAAJ&q=carbonic+oxide#v=snippet&q=carbonic%20oxide&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Early attempts ===
==== Animal blood ====
[[File:Richard Lower.jpg|thumb|[[Richard Lower (physician)|Richard Lower]] pioneered the first blood transfusion from animal to human in 1665 at the [[Royal Society]].]]
Working at the [[Royal Society]] in the 1660s, the physician [[Richard Lower (physician)|Richard Lower]] began examining the effects of changes in blood volume on circulatory function and developed methods for cross-circulatory study in animals, obviating clotting by closed arteriovenous connections. The new instruments he was able to devise enabled him to perform the first reliably documented successful transfusion of blood in front of his distinguished colleagues from the Royal Society.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

According to Lower's account, "...towards the end of February 1665 [I] selected one dog of medium size, opened its jugular vein, and drew off blood, until its strength was nearly gone. Then, to make up for the great loss of this dog by the blood of a second, I introduced blood from the cervical artery of a fairly large mastiff, which had been fastened alongside the first, until this latter animal showed ... it was overfilled ... by the inflowing blood." After he "sewed up the jugular veins", the animal recovered "with no sign of discomfort or of displeasure".

Lower had performed the first blood transfusion between animals. He was then "requested by the Honorable [[Robert Boyle|[Robert] Boyle]] ... to acquaint the [[Royal Society]] with the procedure for the whole experiment", which he did in December 1665 in the Society's ''[[Philosophical Transactions]]''.<ref name="Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rivera AM, Strauss KW, van Zundert A, Mortier E | title = The history of peripheral intravenous catheters: how little plastic tubes revolutionized medicine | journal = Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 271–282 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16265830 | url = http://www.sarb.be/fr/journal/artikels_acta_2005/artikels_acta_56_3/acta_56_3_rivera.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140715002449/http://www.sarb.be/fr/journal/artikels_acta_2005/artikels_acta_56_3/acta_56_3_rivera.pdf | archive-date = 2014-07-15 }}</ref>

The first blood transfusion from animal to human was administered by Dr. [[Jean-Baptiste Denys]], eminent physician to [[Louis XIV|King Louis&nbsp;XIV]] of France, on June&nbsp;15, 1667.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heart-valve-surgery.com/heart-surgery-blog/2009/01/03/first-blood-transfusion |title=The First Blood Transfusion? |publisher=Heart-valve-surgery.com |date=2009-01-03 |access-date=2010-02-09 |archive-date=2013-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216035815/http://www.heart-valve-surgery.com/heart-surgery-blog/2009/01/03/first-blood-transfusion/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He transfused the blood of a [[sheep]] into a 15-year-old boy, who survived the transfusion.<ref name="anes">{{cite web|url=https://www.anesthesia.wisc.edu/AHA/Calendar/June.html |title=This Month in Anesthesia History (archived) |access-date=2016-03-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720122419/https://www.anesthesia.wisc.edu/AHA/Calendar/June.html |archive-date=July 20, 2011 }}</ref> Denys performed another transfusion into a labourer, who also survived. Both instances were likely due to the small amount of blood that was actually transfused into these people. This allowed them to withstand the [[allergic reaction]].

Denys's third patient to undergo a blood transfusion was Swedish Baron [[Gustaf Bonde (1620–1667)|Gustaf Bonde]]. He received two transfusions. After the second transfusion Bonde died.<ref name="pbs.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_denis.html |title=Red Gold. Innovators & Pioneers. Jean-Baptiste Denis |publisher=PBS |access-date=2010-02-09 |archive-date=2012-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110213608/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_denis.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In the winter of 1667, Denys performed several transfusions on Antoine Mauroy with calf's blood.  On the third account Mauroy died.<ref>{{Cite book|doi=10.1002/9780470986868|title=Mollison's Blood Transfusion in Clinical Medicine|year=2005|veditors=Klein HG, Anstee DJ|isbn=978-0-470-98686-8}}</ref>

Six months later in London, Lower performed the first human transfusion of animal blood in Britain, where he "superintended the introduction in [a patient's] arm at various times of some ounces of sheep's blood at a meeting of the Royal Society, and without any inconvenience to him." The recipient was Arthur Coga, "the subject of a harmless form of insanity." Sheep's blood was used because of speculation about the value of blood exchange between species; it had been suggested that blood from a gentle lamb might quiet the tempestuous spirit of an agitated person and that the shy might be made outgoing by blood from more sociable creatures. Coga received 20 shillings ({{Inflation|UK|1|1668|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}) to participate in the experiment.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Yale E|title=First Blood Transfusion: A History|url=http://daily.jstor.org/first-blood-transfusion/|website=[[JSTOR]]|access-date=22 April 2015|date=2015-04-22|archive-date=2015-04-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424181706/http://daily.jstor.org/first-blood-transfusion|url-status=live}}</ref>

Lower went on to pioneer new devices for the precise control of blood flow and the transfusion of blood; his designs were substantially the same as modern [[syringe]]s and [[catheter]]s.<ref name="Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica" /> Shortly after, Lower moved to London, where his growing practice soon led him to abandon research.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Felts JH | title = Richard Lower: anatomist and physiologist | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 132 | issue = 5 | pages = 420–3 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10691601 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-132-5-200003070-00023 | s2cid = 21469192 }}</ref>

These early experiments with animal blood provoked a heated controversy in Britain and France.<ref name="pbs.org" /> Finally, in 1668, the Royal Society and the French government both banned the procedure. The [[Holy See|Vatican]] condemned these experiments in 1670. Blood transfusions fell into obscurity for the next 150 years.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

==== Human blood ====
[[File:James Blundell (physician).jpg|thumb|[[James Blundell (physician)|James Blundell]] successfully transfused human blood in 1818.]]
The science of blood transfusion dates to the first decade of the 20th century, with the discovery of distinct [[blood types]] leading to the practice of mixing some blood from the donor and the receiver before the transfusion (an early form of [[cross-matching]]).{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

In the early 19th century, British [[obstetrician]] Dr. [[James Blundell (physician)|James Blundell]] made efforts to treat [[hemorrhage]] by transfusion of human blood using a syringe. In 1818, after experiments with animals, he performed the first successful transfusion of human blood to treat [[postpartum hemorrhage]]. Blundell used the patient's husband as a donor, and extracted four ounces of blood from his arm to transfuse into his wife. During the years 1825 and 1830, Blundell performed 10 transfusions, five of which were beneficial, and published his results. He also invented a number of instruments for the transfusion of blood.<ref name=Ellis>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ellis H | title = James Blundell, pioneer of blood transfusion. | journal = British Journal of Hospital Medicine | date = August 2005 | volume = 68 | issue = 8 | page = 447 | url = http://www.bjhm.co.uk/cgi-bin/go.pl/library/article.cgi?uid=24500;article=hm_68_8_447 | doi = 10.12968/hmed.2007.68.8.24500 | pmid = 17847699 | access-date = 2013-01-01 | archive-date = 2012-03-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120331104528/http://www.bjhm.co.uk/cgi-bin/go.pl/library/article.cgi?uid=24500;article=hm_68_8_447 | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}</ref> He made a substantial amount of money from this endeavour, roughly $2 million ($50 million [[real dollars]]).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Bridge Across the Abyss: Medical Myths and Misconceptions| vauthors = Madbak F |publisher = Universal-Publishers|year = 2008|isbn = 978-1-58112-987-8|page = 22}}</ref>

In 1840, at [[St George's Hospital Medical School]] in London, [[Samuel Armstrong Lane]], aided by Blundell, performed the first successful whole blood transfusion to treat [[haemophilia]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

However, early transfusions were risky and many resulted in the death of the patient. By the late 19th century, blood transfusion was regarded as a risky and dubious procedure, and was largely shunned by the medical establishment.

Work to emulate James Blundell continued in Edinburgh. In 1845 the ''[[Edinburgh Journal]]'' described the successful transfusion of blood to a woman with severe uterine bleeding. Subsequent transfusions were successful with patients of [[James Young Simpson|Professor James Young Simpson]], after whom the [[Simpson Memorial Maternity Pavilion]] in Edinburgh was named.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title = The History of the Blood Transfusion Service In Edinburgh| vauthors = Masson A |year = 1993|location = Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh and South East Scotland Blood Transfusion Association|oclc=28341723}}</ref>

Various isolated reports of successful transfusions emerged towards the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ok9AQAAIAAJ|title=Scientific American, 'A Successful Case of Transfusion of Blood'|year=1880|publisher=Munn & Company|pages=281|language=en|access-date=2021-06-06|archive-date=2023-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112202810/https://books.google.com/books?id=6ok9AQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The largest series of early successful transfusions took place at the [[Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh|Edinburgh Royal Infirmary]] between 1885 and 1892. Edinburgh later became the home of the first blood donation and blood transfusion services.<ref name=":4" />

===20th century===
[[File:William Stewart Halsted.jpg|thumb|[[William Stewart Halsted]], M.D. (1852–1922) performed one of the first blood transfusions in the United States.]]
Only in 1901, when the Austrian [[Karl Landsteiner]] discovered three human [[ABO blood group system|blood groups]] (O, A, and B), did blood transfusion achieve a scientific basis and become safer.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}

Landsteiner discovered that adverse effects arise from mixing blood from two incompatible individuals. He found that mixing incompatible types triggers an immune response and the red blood cells clump. The immunological reaction occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells. The [[hemolysis|destruction of red blood cells]] releases free [[hemoglobin]] into the bloodstream, which can have fatal consequences. Landsteiner's work made it possible to determine blood group and allowed blood transfusions to take place much more safely. For his discovery he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1930; [[human blood group systems|many other blood groups]] have been discovered since.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}

[[George Washington Crile]] is credited with performing the first surgery using a direct blood transfusion in 1906 at St. Alexis Hospital in Cleveland while a professor of surgery at [[Case Western Reserve University]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nathoo N, Lautzenheiser FK, Barnett GH | title = The first direct human blood transfusion: the forgotten legacy of George W. Crile | journal = Neurosurgery | volume = 64 | issue = 3 Suppl | pages = 20–26; discussion 26–27 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19240569 | doi = 10.1227/01.NEU.0000334416.32584.97 | quote = [...] the first successful blood transfusion performed between 2 brothers on August 6, 1906, at St. Alexis Hospital, Cleveland, OH. | s2cid = 2339938 }}</ref>

[[Jan Janský]] also discovered the human blood groups; in 1907 he classified blood into four groups: I, II, III, IV.<ref>{{lang | cs | "Hematologická studie u psychotiků"}}</ref> His nomenclature is still used in Russia and in states of the former USSR, in which blood types O, A, B, and AB are respectively designated I, II, III, and IV.

Dr. William Lorenzo Moss's (1876–1957) Moss-blood typing technique of 1910 was widely used until [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://onlineathens.com/stories/090501/ath_drmoss.shtml |title=Dr. William Lorenzo Moss |access-date=2014-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228170325/http://onlineathens.com/stories/090501/ath_drmoss.shtml |archive-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=W.L. |last=Moss |title=Studies on isoagglutinins and isohemolysins |journal=Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital |volume=21 |issue= |pages=63–70 |date=1910 }}</ref> The Moss technique also used Roman numerals using I, II, III, IV to correspond to AB, A, B, and O respectively;<ref name="Farr1979">{{cite journal | vauthors = Farr AD | title = Blood group serology—the first four decades (1900–1939) | journal = Medical History | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 215–226 | date = April 1979 | pmid = 381816 | pmc = 1082436 | doi = 10.1017/S0025727300051383 }}</ref> a potentially dangerous overlap with Janský's classification.

[[William Stewart Halsted]], M.D. (1852–1922), an American surgeon, <!--  emphasized strict aseptic technique during surgical procedures, was an early champion of newly-discovered anesthetics, and introduced several new operations, including radical mastectomy for breast cancer. Halsted returned to New York in 1880 and for the next six years led an extraordinarily vigorous and energetic life. He operated at multiple hospitals, including [[St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center|Roosevelt Hospital]], the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Charity Hospital, Emigrant Hospital, [[Bellevue Hospital Center|Bellevue Hospital]] and Chambers Street Hospital. He was an extremely popular, inspiring and charismatic teacher. In 1882 he performed one of the first [[gallbladder]] operations in the United States (a cholecystotomy performed on his mother on the kitchen table at 2&nbsp;am). Halsted also--> performed one of the first blood transfusions in the United States. He had been called to see his sister after she had given birth. He found her moribund from blood loss, and in a bold move withdrew his own blood, transfused his blood into his sister, and then operated on her to save her life.<ref>{{Cite web |date=Fall 2022 |first=Katie |last=Pearce |title=Angels and Demons: The peculiar and haunted genius of Dr. Halsted |url=https://hub.jhu.edu/magazine/2022/fall/william-halsted-breakthroughs-addiction/ |access-date=2024-09-12 |website=The Hub }}</ref>
==== Blood banks in WWI ====
{{Main| Blood bank}}
[[File:Agote 1a transfusión.jpg|thumb|Dr. [[Luis Agote]] (''2nd from right'') overseeing one of the first safe and effective blood transfusions in 1914]]
[[File:Vidro para transfusão de sangue, Centro de Memórias do Curso de Enfermagem da UFES (2).jpg|thumb|Old glass used for blood transfusion]]
While the first transfusions had to be made directly from donor to receiver before [[blood coagulation|coagulation]], it was discovered that by adding [[anticoagulant]] and [[refrigeration|refrigerating]] the blood it was possible to store it for some days, thus opening the way for the development of [[blood bank]]s. [[John Braxton Hicks]] was the first to experiment with chemical methods to prevent the coagulation of blood at [[St Mary's Hospital, London]] in the late-19th century. His attempts, using [[Sodium phosphates|phosphate of soda]], however, proved unsuccessful.

The [[Belgium|Belgian]] doctor [[Albert Hustin]] performed the first non-direct transfusion on March&nbsp;27, 1914, though this involved a diluted solution of blood. The [[Argentina|Argentine]] doctor [[Luis Agote]] used a much less diluted solution in November of the same year. Both used [[Monosodium citrate|sodium citrate]] as an anticoagulant.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1001/jama.1940.02810160078030|title= Effect of External Temperature on Sedimentation Rate of Red Blood Corpuscles|year= 1940| vauthors = Gordon MB |journal= Journal of the American Medical Association|volume= 114|issue= 16}}</ref>

The [[First World War]] (1914–1918) acted as a catalyst for the rapid development of blood banks and transfusion techniques. [[Francis Peyton Rous]] and Joseph R. Turner at the [[Rockefeller University]] (then The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research) made the first important discoveries that blood typing was necessary to avoid blood clumping (coagulation) and blood samples could be preserved using chemical treatment.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=The Rockefeller University Hospital Centennial — The First Blood Bank |url=https://centennial.rucares.org/index.php?page=blood_bank |access-date=2022-03-18 |website=centennial.rucares.org |publisher=The Rockefeller University |archive-date=2022-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331111840/https://centennial.rucares.org/index.php?page=Blood_Bank |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite news | vauthors = Brody JE |date=1970-02-17 |title=Dr. Peyton Rous, Nobel Laureate, Dies |pages=43 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/02/17/archives/dr-peyton-rous-nobel-laureate-dies.html |access-date=2022-03-18 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Their first report in March 1915 showed that gelatine, agar, blood serum extracts, starch and beef albumin proved to be useless preservatives.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Rous P, Turner JR |date= March 1915 |title=On the preservation in vitro of living erythrocytes |url=http://ebm.sagepub.com/lookup/doi/10.3181/00379727-12-74 |journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=122–4 |doi=10.3181/00379727-12-74 |issn=1535-3702 |s2cid=88016286|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

However, building on the same experiment, they discovered that a mixture sodium citrate and glucose ([[dextrose]]) solution was a perfect preservative; as they reported in February issue of the ''[[Journal of Experimental Medicine]],'' the preserved bloods were just like fresh bloods and that they "function excellently when reintroduced into the body."<ref name=":02">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rous P, Turner JR | title = The Preservation of Living Red Blood Cells in Vitro | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 219–237 | date = February 1916 | pmid = 19867981 | pmc = 2125399 | doi = 10.1084/jem.23.2.219 }}</ref> Blood could be preserved for up to four weeks. An accompanying experiment using citrate-saccharose (sucrose) mixture was also a success which could maintain blood cells for two weeks.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rous P, Turner JR | title = The Preservation of Living Red Blood Cells in Vitro | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 239–248 | date = February 1916 | pmid = 19867982 | pmc = 2125395 | doi = 10.1084/jem.23.2.239 }}</ref> This use of citrate and sugars, sometimes known as Rous-Turner solution, was the foundation for the development of blood banks and improvement of transfusion method.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hess JR | title = An update on solutions for red cell storage | journal = Vox Sanguinis | volume = 91 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–19 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16756596 | doi = 10.1111/j.1423-0410.2006.00778.x | s2cid = 35894834 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hanigan WC, King SC | title = Cold blood and clinical research during World War I | journal = Military Medicine | volume = 161 | issue = 7 | pages = 392–400 | date = July 1996 | pmid = 8754712 | doi = 10.1093/milmed/161.7.392 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Another discovery of Rous and Turner was the most critical step in the safety of blood transfusion. Rous was well aware that Landsteiner's concept of blood types had not yet found practical value, as he remarked: "The fate of Landsteiner's effort to call attention to the practical bearing of the group differences in human bloods provides an exquisite instance of knowledge marking time on technique. Transfusion was still not done because (until at least 1915), the risk of clotting was too great."<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Rous P |author-link=Francis Peyton Rous |year=1947 |title=Karl Landsteiner. 1868–1943 |journal=[[Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society]] |volume=5 |issue=15 |pages=294–324 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1947.0002 |s2cid=161789667}}</ref> In June 1915, they made a crucial report in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' that agglutination could be avoided if the blood samples of the donor and recipient were tested before. Which they called a rapid and simple method for testing blood compatibility, sodium citrate was used to dilute the blood samples, and after mixing the recipient's and donor's blood in 9:1 and 1:1 parts, blood would either clump or remain watery after 15 minutes. According to their advice, blood without clumping "should always be chosen if possible."<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Rous P, Turner JR |date=1915 |title=A rapid and simple method of testing donors for transfusion |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=LXIV |issue=24 |pages=1980–2 |doi=10.1001/jama.1915.02570500028011|url=https://zenodo.org/record/2520617 }}</ref>

Canadian doctor and Lieutenant [[Lawrence Bruce Robertson]] became instrumental in persuading the [[Royal Army Medical Corps]] to adopt the use of blood transfusion at the [[Casualty Clearing Station]]s for the wounded. In October 1915, Robertson performed his first wartime transfusion with a syringe to a patient who had multiple shrapnel wounds. He followed this up with four subsequent transfusions in the following months, and his success was reported to Sir [[Walter Morley Fletcher]], director of the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Committee]].<ref name="star2016">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/a-canadian-kept-blood-flowing-in-wwi-an-american-got-credit/article_d35d4990-5878-5597-89c8-c7ede343a289.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228233233/https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/2016/07/09/a-canadian-kept-blood-flowing-in-wwi-an-american-got-credit.html|url-status=dead|title=A Canadian kept blood flowing in WWI. An American got credit|first=Katie Daubs Feature|last=Writer|date=July 9, 2016|archivedate=February 28, 2017|website=Toronto Star}}</ref>

[[File:Direct-blood-transfusion.jpg|thumb|left|[[World War II]] Russian syringe for direct inter-human blood transfusion]]
Robertson published his findings in the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' in 1916 and, with the help of a few like-minded individuals (including the eminent physician [[Edward William Archibald]]), was able to persuade the British authorities of the merits of blood transfusion. Robertson went on to establish the first blood-transfusion apparatus at a Casualty Clearing Station on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] in the spring of 1917.<ref name=star2016 /><ref name="Pelis">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pelis K | title = Taking credit: the Canadian Army Medical Corps and the British conversion to blood transfusion in WWI | journal = Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 238–277 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11552401 | doi = 10.1093/jhmas/56.3.238 | s2cid = 34956231 }}</ref> Robertson did not test crossmatching so that one died of hemolysis in his 1916 transfusion, and three in 1917.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stansbury LG, Hess JR | title = Blood transfusion in World War I: the roles of Lawrence Bruce Robertson and Oswald Hope Robertson in the "most important medical advance of the war" | journal = Transfusion Medicine Reviews | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 232–6 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19539877 | doi = 10.1016/j.tmrv.2009.03.007 }}</ref>

[[Oswald Hope Robertson]], a medical researcher and [[U.S. Army|U.S.&nbsp;Army]] officer, was attached to the [[RAMC]] in 1917, where he became instrumental in establishing the first blood banks in preparation for the anticipated [[Battle of Passchendaele|Third Battle of Ypres]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/history/timeline3.html|title= Red Gold: the Epic Story of Blood|publisher= PBS|access-date= 2017-08-24|archive-date= 2015-05-10|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150510070430/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/history/timeline3.html|url-status= live}}</ref> He used sodium citrate as the anticoagulant; blood was extracted from punctures in the [[vein]] and was stored in bottles at British and American Casualty Clearing Stations along the Front. Robertson also experimented with preserving separated [[red blood cell]]s in iced bottles.<ref name="Pelis" /> [[Geoffrey Keynes]], a British surgeon, developed a portable machine that could store blood to enable transfusions to be carried out more easily.

==== Expansion ====
[[File:A A Bogdanov.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander Bogdanov]] established a scientific institute to research the effects of blood transfusion in Moscow, 1925.]]
The secretary of the [[British Red Cross]], [[Percy Lane Oliver]], established the world's first blood-donor service in 1921. In that year, Oliver was contacted by [[King's College Hospital]], where they were in urgent need of a blood donor.
<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=n0_Vqz-V_T8C|title= The Great Ormond Street Hospital Manual of Children's Nursing Practices| vauthors = Macqueen S, Bruce E, Gibson F |year= 2012|publisher= John Wiley & Sons|page= 75|isbn= 978-1-118-27422-4}}</ref> After providing a donor, Oliver set about organizing a system for the voluntary registration of blood donors at clinics around London, with Sir [[Geoffrey Keynes]] appointed as a medical adviser. Volunteers were subjected to a series of physical tests to establish their [[blood group]]. The [[National Blood Service|London Blood Transfusion Service]] was free of charge and expanded rapidly in its first few years of operation. By 1925 it was providing services for almost 500 patients; it was incorporated into the structure of the British Red Cross in 1926. Similar systems developed in other cities, including [[Sheffield]], [[Manchester]] and [[Norwich]], and the service's work began to attract international attention. France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Australia and Japan established similar services.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_oliver.html|title= Percy Oliver|publisher= Red Gold: The Eipc Story of Blood|access-date= 2017-08-24|archive-date= 2015-04-16|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150416153023/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_oliver.html|url-status= live}}</ref>

[[Alexander Bogdanov]] founded an academic institution devoted to the science of blood transfusion in [[Moscow]] in 1925. Bogdanov was motivated, at least in part, by a search for [[eternal youth]], and remarked with satisfaction on the improvement of his eyesight, suspension of balding, and other positive symptoms after receiving 11 transfusions of [[whole blood]]. Bogdanov died in 1928 as a result of one of his experiments, when the blood of a student with [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]] was given to him in a transfusion.<ref>Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal. ''New Myth, New World: From Nietzsche to Stalinism'', Pennsylvania State University, 2002, {{ISBN| 0-271-02533-6}}, pp. 161–162.</ref> Following Bogdanov's lead, Vladimir Shamov and [[Sergei Yudin (surgeon)|Sergei Yudin]] in the [[USSR]] pioneered the [[Cadaveric blood transfusion|transfusion of cadaveric blood]] from recently deceased donors. Yudin performed such a transfusion successfully for the first time on March 23, 1930, and reported his first seven [[clinic]]al transfusions with cadaveric blood at the Fourth Congress of [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] Surgeons at Kharkiv in September. However, this method was never used widely, even in the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, the Soviet Union was the first to establish a network of facilities to collect and store blood for use in transfusions at hospitals.

[[File:Blood transfusion ww2 poster.jpg|thumb|left| British poster of 1944 encouraging people to donate blood for the war effort]]
[[Frederic Durán-Jordà]] established one of the earliest blood banks during the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1936. Duran joined the Transfusion Service at the [[Hospital de Sant Pau|Barcelona Hospital]] at the start of the conflict, but the hospital was soon overwhelmed by the demand for blood and the paucity of available donors. With support from the Department of Health of the [[Spanish Republican Army]], Duran established a blood bank for the use of wounded soldiers and civilians. The 300–400&nbsp;mL of extracted blood was mixed with 10% citrate solution in a modified Duran Erlenmeyer flask. The blood was stored in a sterile glass enclosed under pressure at 2&nbsp;°C. During 30 months of work, the Transfusion Service of Barcelona registered almost 30,000 donors, and processed 9,000 liters of blood.<ref>
{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3QwXx_enKbcC|title= Blood Banking and Transfusion Medicine: Basic Principles & Practice| vauthors = Hillyer CD |year= 2007|publisher= Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn= 978-0-443-06981-9}}</ref>

In 1937 [[Bernard Fantus]], director of therapeutics at the [[Cook County Hospital]] in [[Chicago]], established the first hospital blood-bank in the [[United States]]. In setting up a hospital laboratory that preserved, refrigerated and stored donor blood, Fantus originated the term "blood bank". Within a few years, hospital and community blood-banks were established across the United States.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors= Kilduffe R, DeBakey M |title= The blood bank and the technique and therapeutics of transfusion |location=St. Louis |publisher=C.V. Mosby |year= 1942|pages= 196–7}}</ref>  Until the middle of World War II, the newly established US blood banks rejected African-American donors.  During the war, Black people were allowed to donate blood, but the donated blood was labeled as being suitable only for transfusion into another person from the same race.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Jeremy W. |last2=Bibb |first2=Lorin A. |last3=Savani |first3=Bipin N. |last4=Booth |first4=Garrett S. |date=February 2022 |title=Refusing blood transfusions from COVID-19-vaccinated donors: are we repeating history? |journal=[[British Journal of Haematology]] |volume=196 |issue=3 |pages=585–8 |doi=10.1111/bjh.17842 |pmc=8653055 |pmid=34523736}}</ref>

Frederic Durán-Jordà fled to Britain in 1938 and worked with Dr [[Janet Vaughan]] at the [[Royal Postgraduate Medical School]] at Hammersmith Hospital to establish a system of national blood banks in London.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Starr D |title= Blood: An Epic History of Medicine and Commerce|year= 1998|publisher= Little, Brown and Company|isbn= 0-316-91146-1|pages= 84–87}}</ref> With the outbreak of [[Second World War|war]] appearing imminent in 1938, the [[War Office]] created the Army Blood Supply Depot (ABSD) in Bristol, headed by [[Lionel Whitby]] and in control of four large blood-depots around the country. British policy through the war was to supply military personnel with blood from centralized depots, in contrast to the approach taken by the Americans and Germans where troops at the front were bled to provide required blood. The British method proved more successful in adequately meeting all requirements, and over 700,000 donors were bled over the course of the war. This system evolved into the [[National Blood Service|National Blood Transfusion Service]] established in 1946, the first national service to be implemented.
<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Giangrande PL | title = The history of blood transfusion | journal = British Journal of Haematology | volume = 110 | issue = 4 | pages = 758–767 | date = September 2000 | pmid = 11054057 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2000.02139.x | s2cid = 71592265 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Stories tell of [[Nazism|Nazis]] in Eastern Europe during World War II using captive children as repeated involuntary blood-donors.<ref>For example:
{{cite news
 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=65e0AAAAMAAJ
 |title= Free World
 |volume= 8
 |year= 1944
 |publisher= Free World, Inc.
 |page= 442
 |access-date= 16 August 2019
 |quote= [...] Nazis chose the healthiest Polish children and transported them to German field hospitals where they used them for constant blood transfusions [...].
 |archive-date= 26 July 2024
 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240726172745/https://books.google.com/books?id=65e0AAAAMAAJ
 |url-status= live
 }}</ref>

==== Medical advances ====
[[File:Private Roy W. Humphrey of Toledo, Ohio is being given blood plasma after he was wounded by shrapnel in Sicily on 8-9-43 - NARA - 197268.jpg|thumb|Wounded soldier being given [[blood plasma]] in [[Sicily]], 1943]]
A blood-collection program was initiated{{by whom|date=August 2019}} in the US in 1940 and [[Edwin Cohn]] pioneered the process of [[blood fractionation]]. He worked out the techniques for isolating the [[serum albumin]] fraction of [[blood plasma]], which is essential for maintaining the [[oncotic pressure|osmotic pressure]] in the [[blood vessel]]s, preventing their collapse.

Gordon R. Ward, writing in the correspondence columns of the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'', proposed the use of [[blood plasma]] as a substitute for whole blood and for transfusion purposes as early as 1918. At the onset of [[World War II]], liquid plasma was used in Britain. A large project, known as "Blood for Britain", began in August 1940 to collect blood in [[New York City]] hospitals for the export of plasma to [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. A [[Freeze-drying|freeze-dried]] plasma package was developed by the Surgeons General of the Army and Navy, working with the [[National Research Council (United States)|National Research Council]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bmtV2HTcZh0C |title=United States Naval Medical Bulletin |date=1942 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |access-date=2022-11-29 |archive-date=2024-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331133534/https://books.google.com/books?id=bmtV2HTcZh0C |url-status=live }}</ref> which reduced breakage and made transportation, packaging, and storage much simpler.<ref>{{Cite book | chapter-url = http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter1.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060111115330/http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter1.htm | archive-date = 11 January 2006 | chapter = Transfusion Before World War I | vauthors = Kendrick DB | title = Blood program in world war II. | publisher = Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army | date = 1964 }}</ref>

[[File:Charles R Drew portrait.png|thumb|left|[[Charles R. Drew]] oversaw the production of blood plasma for shipping to Britain during WW2.]]
The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 mL bottles. One bottle contained enough [[distilled water]] to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours.<ref>{{Cite book | chapter-url = http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter7.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060208034909/http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/chapter7.htm | archive-date = 8 February 2006 | chapter = Plasma Equipment and Packaging, and Transfusion Equipment | vauthors = Kendrick DB | title = Blood program in world war II. | publisher = Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army | date = 1964 }}</ref> Dr. [[Charles R. Drew]] was appointed medical supervisor, and he was able to transform the [[test-tube]] methods into the first successful technique for mass production.

Another important breakthrough came in 1937–40 when [[Karl Landsteiner]] (1868–1943), Alex Wiener, Philip Levine, and R.E. Stetson discovered the [[Rhesus blood group system]], which was found to be the cause of the majority of [[transfusion reaction]]s up to that time. Three years later, the introduction by [[John Freeman Loutit|J.F. Loutit]] and Patrick L. Mollison of [[acid–citrate–dextrose]] (ACD) solution, which reduced the volume of anticoagulant, permitted transfusions of greater volumes of blood and allowed longer-term storage.

Carl Walter and W.P. Murphy Jr. introduced the [[plastic bag]] for blood collection in 1950. Replacing breakable [[glass]] bottles with durable plastic bags made from [[PVC]] allowed for the evolution of a collection system capable of safe and easy preparation of multiple blood components from a single unit of whole blood.

In the field of [[cancer surgery]], the replacement of massive blood-loss became a major problem. The cardiac-arrest rate was high. In 1963 C. Paul Boyan and William S. Howland discovered that the temperature of the blood and the rate of infusion greatly affected survival rates, and introduced blood warming to surgery.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boyan CP, Howland WS | title = Cardiac arrest and temperature of bank blood | journal = JAMA | volume = 183 | pages = 58–60 | date = January 1963 | pmid = 14014662 | doi = 10.1001/jama.1963.63700010027020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Boyan CP |chapter=Massive Blood Transfusions — Warming of Bank Blood |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-69636-7_21 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-69636-7_21 |isbn= 978-3-540-13255-4 | veditors = Rupreht J, van Lieburg MJ, Lee JA, Erdman W |publisher= Springer |year= 1985 |pages= 99–101 |title= Anaesthesia: essays on its history}}</ref>

Further extending the shelf-life of stored blood up to 42 days was an anticoagulant preservative, CPDA-1, introduced in 1979, which increased the blood supply and facilitated resource-sharing among blood banks.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sugita Y, Simon ER | title = The Mechanism of Action of Adenine in Red Cell Preservation | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 629–642 | date = April 1965 | pmid = 14278179 | pmc = 292538 | doi = 10.1172/JCI105176 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Simon ER, Chapman RG, Finch CA | title = Adenine in red cell preservation | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 41 | issue = 2 | pages = 351–9 | date = February 1962 | pmid = 14039291 | pmc = 289233 | doi = 10.1172/JCI104489 }}</ref>

{{As of|2006}} about 15 million units of blood products were transfused per year in the United States.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07010/752655-28.stm | title= New rules may shrink ranks of blood donors | date= 2007-01-10 | vauthors= Landro L | newspaper= Wall Street Journal | access-date= 2008-04-05 | archive-date= 2009-08-04 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090804060528/http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07010/752655-28.stm | url-status= dead }}</ref> By 2013 the number had declined to about 11 million units, because of the shift towards [[laparoscopic surgery]] and other surgical advances and studies that have shown that many transfusions were unnecessary. For example, the standard of care reduced the amount of blood transfused in one case from 750 to 200&nbsp;mL.<ref name="Transfusions Decline"/>  In 2019, 10,852,000 RBC units, 2,243,000 platelet units, and 2,285,000 plasma units were transfused in the United States.<ref name=Jones21 />