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== Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924) == {{Main|Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate}} [[File:OttomanEmpireMain.png|thumb|right|The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in 1683, under Sultan [[Mehmed IV]]]] [[File:Halife Abdülmecid Efendi ve kızı Dürrüşehvar Sultan.jpg|thumb|[[Abdulmejid II]], the last caliph of Sunni Islam from the [[Ottoman dynasty]], with his daughter [[Dürrüşehvar Sultan]]]] The caliphate was claimed by the [[sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] beginning with [[Murad I]] (reigned 1362 to 1389),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lambton |first1=Ann |author-link1=Ann Lambton |last2=Lewis |first2=Bernard |author-link2=Bernard Lewis |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |page=320 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-22310-2 |access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of [[Edirne]]. In 1453, after [[Mehmed the Conqueror]]'s [[conquest of Constantinople]], the seat of the Ottomans moved to [[Constantinople]], present-day [[Istanbul]]. In 1517, the Ottoman sultan [[Selim I]] defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/89726/caliph |title=Caliph |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503145209/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/89726/caliph |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sourdel1978" /> Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]], which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world. Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the ''de facto'' leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. However, the earlier Ottoman caliphs did not officially bear the title of caliph in their documents of state, inscriptions, or coinage.<ref name="Sourdel1978">Dominique Sourdel, [http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/k-h-ali-fa-COM_0486?s.num=7&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Caliphate "The history of the institution of the caliphate"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224094511/http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/k-h-ali-fa-COM_0486?s.num=7&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Caliphate |date=24 December 2014 }} (1978)</ref> It was only in the late eighteenth century that the claim to the caliphate was discovered by the sultans to have a practical use, since it allowed them to counter Russian claims to protect Ottoman Christians with their own claim to protect Muslims under Russian rule.<ref>{{cite book |last=Karpat |first=Kemal H. |author-link=Kemal Karpat |title=The Ottoman State and Its Place in World History: Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orEfAAAAIAAJ |page=21 |publisher=Brill |year=1974 |isbn=978-9004039452}}</ref><ref name="Finkel2005">{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |place=New York |publisher=Basic |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7 |page=111}}</ref> The outcome of the [[Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774]] was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as [[Crimea]], were lost to the Russian Empire.<ref name="Finkel2005" /> However, the Ottomans under [[Abdul Hamid I]] claimed a diplomatic victory by being allowed to remain the religious leaders of Muslims in the now-independent Crimea as part of the peace treaty; in return Russia became the official protector of Christians in Ottoman territory.<ref name="Finkel2005" /> According to Barthold, the first time the title of "caliph" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] with the [[Russian Empire]] in 1774, when the Empire retained [[moral authority]] on territory whose sovereignty was ceded to the Russian Empire.<ref name="Finkel2005" /> The [[British Empire|British]] would tactfully affirm the Ottoman claim to the caliphate and proceed to have the Ottoman caliph issue orders to the Muslims living in [[British India]] to comply with the British government.<ref name="Qureshi1999">{{cite book |first=M. Naeem |last=Qureshi |title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czKYZPyoyx0C&pg=PA18 |year=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004113718 |pages=18–19}}</ref> The British supported and propagated the view that the Ottomans were caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India, and the Ottoman sultans helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India telling them to support British rule from Sultan [[Selim III]] and Sultan [[Abdulmejid I]].<ref name="Qureshi1999" /> Around 1880, Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] reasserted the title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Sunni Muslims of [[British Raj|British India]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India |last=James |first=Lawrence |year=2000 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |page=444 |isbn=978-0-312-26382-9}}</ref> By the eve of [[World War I]], the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.{{Citation needed|date= January 2018}} In 1899, [[John Hay]], U.S. Secretary of State, asked the American ambassador to [[Ottoman Turkey]], [[Oscar Straus (politician)|Oscar Straus]], to approach Sultan Abdul Hamid II to use his position as caliph to order the [[Tausūg people]] of the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] in the Philippines to submit to American [[suzerainty]] and American military rule; the Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter which was sent to Sulu via Mecca. As a result, the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty."<ref>{{cite book |first=Kemal H. |last=Karpat |title=The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvVlS3ljx20C&pg=PA235 |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513618-0 |page=235 |access-date=19 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Moshe |last=Yegar |title=Between Integration and Secession: The Muslim Communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5q7qxi5LBgC&pg=PA397 |year=2002 |publisher=Lexington |isbn=978-0-7391-0356-2 |page=397}}</ref> === Abolition of the Caliphate (1924) === {{Main|Abolition of the Caliphate}} {{See also|Atatürk's reforms}} {{more citations needed|section|date=December 2012}} [[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Official portrait of [[Abdulmejid II]] as caliph]] {{Islamism sidebar|Concepts}} After the [[Armistice of Mudros]] of October 1918 with the military [[occupation of Constantinople]] and [[Treaty of Versailles]] (1919), the position of the Ottomans was uncertain. The movement to protect or restore the Ottomans gained force after the [[Treaty of Sèvres]] (August 1920) which imposed the [[partitioning of the Ottoman Empire]] and gave Greece a powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks. They called for help and the movement was the result. The movement had collapsed by late 1922. On 3 March 1924, the first [[List of presidents of Turkey|president of the Turkish Republic]], [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], as part of [[Atatürk's Reforms|his reforms]], constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate.<ref name="Britannica" /> Atatürk offered the caliphate to [[Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi]], on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for [[Abdulmejid II|Abdulmejid]].{{sfn|Özoğlu|2011|p=5; Özoğlu quotes 867.00/1801: [[Mark Lambert Bristol]] on 19 August 1924}} The title was then [[Sharifian Caliphate|claimed]] by [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca]] and [[Hejaz]], leader of the [[Arab Revolt]], but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by [[ibn Saud]] in 1925. Egyptian scholar [[Ali Abdel Raziq]] published his 1925 book ''Islam and the Foundations of Governance''. The argument of this book has been summarised as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government".<ref>Elizabeth Suzanne Kassab. ''Contemporary Arab Thought: Cultural Critique in Comparative Perspective''. Columbia University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0231144896}} p. 40</ref> He focussed his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate.<ref>Bertrand Badie, Dirk Berg-Schlosser, Leonardo Morlino (eds). ''International Encyclopedia of Political Science'', Volume 1. Sage, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1412959636}} p. 1350.</ref> Raziq wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as a shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels".<ref>Kemal H. Karpat. "The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State". ''Studies in Middle Eastern History''. Oxford University Press, 2001 {{ISBN|978-0195136180}} pp. 242–243.</ref> A summit was convened at [[Cairo]] in 1926 to discuss the revival of the caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate, and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions. Though the title ''Ameer al-Mumineen'' was adopted by the King of Morocco and by [[Mullah Omar|Mohammed Omar]], former head of the [[Taliban]] of [[Afghanistan]], neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}} Since the end of the Ottoman Empire, occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the re-establishment of the caliphate. Organisations which call for the re-establishment of the caliphate include [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].<ref>Jay Tolson, "Caliph Wanted: Why An Old Islamic Institution Resonates With Many Muslims Today", ''U.S News & World Report'' 144.1 (14 January 2008): 38–40.</ref> The [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AKP]] government in Turkey, a former Muslim Brotherhood ally who has adopted [[Neo-Ottomanism|Neo-Ottomanist]] policies throughout its rule, has been accused of intending to restore the caliphate.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.setav.org/en/how-to-interpret-discussions-on-ataturk-and-the-caliphate/ |title=How to interpret discussions on Atatürk and the caliphate |journal=[[Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research|SETA]] |date=4 August 2020 |access-date=7 January 2024 |last=Duran |first=Burhanettin |archive-date=7 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107002225/https://www.setav.org/en/how-to-interpret-discussions-on-ataturk-and-the-caliphate/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Khilafat Movement (1919–1924) ==== {{Main|Khilafat Movement}} {{See also|Partition of the Ottoman Empire}} The [[Khilafat Movement]] was launched by Muslims in [[British India]] in 1920 to defend the Ottoman Caliphate [[Aftermath of World War I|at the end of the First World War]] and it spread throughout the British colonial territories. It was strong in British India where it formed a rallying point for some Indian Muslims as one of many anti-British Indian political movements. Its leaders included [[Mohammad Ali Jouhar]], his brother Shawkat Ali and [[Maulana Abul Kalam Azad]], [[Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari]], Hakim Ajmal Khan and Barrister Muhammad Jan Abbasi. For a time it was supported by [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indhistory.com/khilafat-movement.html |title=The Khilafat Movement |publisher=Indhistory.com |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428192813/http://www.indhistory.com/khilafat-movement.html |archive-date=28 April 2015 |url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.quaid.gov.pk/politician6.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070416001259/http://www.quaid.gov.pk/politician6.htm |url-status=dead |title=The Statesman |archive-date=16 April 2007}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2024}} However, the movement lost its momentum after the abolition of the caliphate in 1924. After further arrests and flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organisation, the Movement eventually died down and disbanded. === Parallel regional caliphates to the Ottomans === ==== Indian subcontinent ==== {{Main|Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent}} [[File:Aurangzeb-portrait.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Hafiz Muhiuddin [[Aurangzeb]], unlike his predecessors, was considered to be a caliph of India.]] After the [[Umayyad campaigns in India]] and the conquest on small territories of the western part of the Indian peninsula, early Indian Muslim dynasties were founded by the [[Ghurid dynasty]] and the [[Ghaznavids]], most notably the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. The Indian sultanates did not extensively strive for a caliphate since the [[Ottoman Empire]] was already observing the caliphate.<ref>"Truths and Lies: Irony and Intrigue in the Tārīkh-i Bayhaqī", Soheila Amirsoleimani, ''Iranian Studies'', Vol. 32, No. 2, The Uses of Guile: Literary and Historical Moments (Spring, 1999), 243.</ref> The emperors of the [[Mughal Empire]], who were the only Sunni rulers whose territory and wealth could compete with that of the Ottomans, started assuming the title of caliph and calling their capital as the ''Dar-ul-khilafat'' ("abode of the caliphate") since the time of the third emperor [[Akbar]] like their Timurid ancestors. A gold coin struck under Akbar called him the "great ''sultan'', the exalted ''khalifah''". Although the Mughals did not acknowledge the overlordship of Ottomans, they nevertheless used the title of caliph to honour them in diplomatic exchanges. Akbar's letter to [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] addressed the latter as having attained the rank of the caliphate, while calling Akbar's empire as the "Khilafat of realms of Hind and Sind."<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas Walker |last=Arnold |author-link=Thomas Walker Arnold |chapter=The Mughal Emperors in India |title=The Caliphate |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=159, 160 |year=1924}}</ref> The fifth emperor [[Shah Jahan]] also laid claim to the Caliphate.<ref>{{cite book |first=Annemarie |last=Schimmel |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |chapter=The Historical Background |title=Gabriel's Wing A Study Into the Religious Ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal |publisher=Brill |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goE3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA30 |page=30 |year=1963}}</ref> Although the Mughal Empire is not recognised as a caliphate, its sixth emperor [[Aurangzeb]] has often been regarded as one of the few Islamic caliphs to have ruled the Indian peninsula.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Roy |title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State |year=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-95036-0}}</ref> He received support from the [[Ottoman sultans]] such as [[Suleiman II of the Ottoman Empire|Suleiman II]] and [[Mehmed IV]]. As a memoriser of Quran, Aurangzeb fully established [[sharia]] in South Asia via his [[Fatawa 'Alamgiri]].{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} He re-introduced [[jizya]] and banned Islamically unlawful activities. However, Aurangzeb's personal expenses were covered by his own incomes, which included the sewing of caps and trade of his written copies of the Quran. Thus, he has been compared to the second caliph, [[Umar]] bin Khattab, and Kurdish conqueror [[Saladin]].<ref>Dasgupta, K., 1975. How Learned Were the Mughals: Reflections on Muslim Libraries in India. The Journal of Library History, 10(3), pp. 241–254.</ref><ref>Qadir, K.B.S.S.A., 1936. "The Cultural Influences of Islam in India". ''Journal of the Royal Society of Arts'', pp. 228–241.</ref> The Mughal emperors continued to be addressed as caliphs until the reign of [[Shah Alam II]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas Walker |last=Arnold |author-link=Thomas Walker Arnold |chapter=The Mughal Emperors in India |title=The Caliphate |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=162 |year=1924}}</ref> Other notable rulers such as [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji]], [[Alauddin Khilji]], [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]], [[Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah]], [[Babur]], [[Sher Shah Suri]], [[Nasir I of Kalat]], [[Tipu Sultan]], [[Nawabs of Bengal]], and the [[Khwaja Salimullah]] were popularly given the term ''khalifa''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Banarsi Prasad |last=Saksena |author-link=Banarsi Prasad Saksena |chapter=The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji |editor=Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526) |volume=5 |edition=2nd |year=1992 |orig-year=1970 |publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |oclc=31870180 |access-date=13 April 2019 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131632/https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== West Africa ==== Several rulers of West Africa adopted the title of Caliph. Mai [[Ali Gazi|Ali Ghaji ibn Dunama]] (r. {{circa}} 1472–{{circa}} 1503) was the first ruler of [[Bornu Empire]] to assume the title. [[Askia Mohammad I]] of [[Songhai Empire]] also assumed the title around the same time.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of Islam in Africa|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author-link1=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|publisher=Ohio University Press|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC}}</ref> The Bornu Caliphate (1472–1893), which was headed by the Bornu emperors, began in 1472. A rump state of the larger [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]], its rulers held the title of caliph until 1893, when it was absorbed into the British [[Colony of Nigeria]] and [[British Cameroon|Northern Cameroons Protectorate]]. The British recognised them as the 'sultans of Bornu', one step down in Muslim royal titles. After Nigeria became independent, its rulers became the 'emirs of Bornu', another step down. The [[Sokoto Caliphate]] (1804–1903) was an Islamic state in what is now [[Nigeria]] led by [[Usman dan Fodio]]. Founded during the [[Fulani War]] in the early nineteenth century, it controlled one of the most powerful empires in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] prior to European conquest and colonisation culminating in the [[Adamawa Wars]] and the [[Battle of Kano]]. The caliphate remained extant through the colonial period and afterwards, though with reduced power.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} The current head of the Sokoto Caliphate is [[Sa'adu Abubakar]]. The [[Toucouleur Empire]] (1848–1893), also known as the Tukular Empire, was one of the [[Fula jihads|Fulani jihad]] states in sub-saharan Africa. It was eventually pacified and annexed by the [[French Colonial Empire|French Republic]], being incorporated into [[French West Africa]]. Additionally, the [[Massina Empire]] (1818–1862) joined these jihad states in West Africa and claimed to be a caliphate. ==== Yogyakarta Caliphate (1755–2015) ==== The Indonesian [[Yogyakarta Sultanate|sultan of Yogyakarta]] historically used ''Khalifatullah'' (Caliph of God) as one of his titles. In 2015 sultan [[Hamengkubuwono X]] renounced any claim to the caliphate to facilitate his [[Princess Mangkubumi|daughter's]] inheritance of the throne, as the theological opinion of the time was that a woman may hold the secular office of sultan but not the spiritual office of caliph.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.globalindonesianvoices.com/20785/is-yogyakarta-ready-for-a-female-successor-to-sultan-hamengkubowono/ |title=Is Yogyakarta Ready for a Female Successor to Sultan Hamengkubowono? |date=17 May 2015 |access-date=12 October 2018 |archive-date=22 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222193722/http://www.globalindonesianvoices.com/20785/is-yogyakarta-ready-for-a-female-successor-to-sultan-hamengkubowono/ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2024}} ==== Moroccan Caliphate ==== {{main|Moroccan Caliphate}} France planned to appoint sultan [[Yusef of Morocco]], who served as the leader of the [[French protectorate in Morocco]], as their "Caliph of the West" to strengthen their control over their colonies in Africa and the Middle East after the [[1914 Ottoman jihad proclamation]]. As part of the [[Alawi dynasty]], he claimed to be a descendant of Fatima. France abandoned the plan in the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]] in 1916 which gave Britain free hand in creating their own caliphate in Arabia which also never came to fruition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ardıc̦ |first=Nurullah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wql6oCwx1YwC |title=Islam and the Politics of Secularism: The Caliphate and Middle Eastern Modernization in the Early 20th Century |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-67166-8 |language=en|pages=186f}}</ref> ==== Sharifian Caliphate (1924–1931) ==== {{Main|Sharifian Caliphate}} [[File:Hejaz-English.jpg|thumb|The [[Kingdom of Hejaz]], which would become the [[Sharifian Caliphate]] in green, and the current region in red]] The '''Sharifian Caliphate''' ({{langx|ar|خلافة شريفية}}) was an Arab caliphate proclaimed by the [[Sharif of Mecca|Sharifian rulers]] of [[Kingdom of Hejaz|Hejaz]] in 1924 previously known as [[Hejaz Vilayet|Vilayet Hejaz]], declaring independence from the [[Ottoman Caliphate]]. The idea of the Sharifian Caliphate had been floating around since at least the fifteenth century.<ref>[[#Tei01|Teitelbaum 2001 p. 42]]{{verify source|date=March 2015}}</ref> In the [[Arab world]], it represented the culmination of a long struggle to reclaim the caliphate from Ottoman hands. The first Arab revolts challenging the validity of the Ottoman caliphate and demanding that an Arab [[Sayyid]] be chosen as caliph can be traced back to 1883 when Sheikh Hamat-al-Din seized [[Sanaa]] and called for the caliphate as a Sayyid.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Series Vol. 7 No. 6 (1 May 1917) |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-392930355 |access-date=2022-10-09 |website=Trove |archive-date=25 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525103934/https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-392930355/view |url-status=live}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator -->.</ref> However, it was not until the [[Abolition of the Caliphate|end of the Ottoman caliphate]], abolished by the [[Kemalists]], that Hussein bin Ali was proclaimed caliph in March 1924. His stance towards the Ottoman caliphate was ambiguous, and while he was hostile to it,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Source Records of the Great War Sharif Hussein's Proclamation of Independence from Turkey, 27th June 1916 |url=https://sayyidamiruddin.com/2013/08/13/sharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916/#& |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=https://sayyidamiruddin.com/2013/08/13/sharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916/#& |archive-date=2023-12-14 |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=archive.wikiwix.com}}</ref> he preferred to wait for its official abolition before assuming the title, so as not to break the [[Ummah]] by creating a second caliph alongside the [[Ottoman caliph]]. He also supported financially the late Ottoman dynasty in exile, to avoid them being ruined.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ekinci |first=ekrem |title=How Did the Ottoman Dynasty Survive in Exile? |url=https://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/article/?ID=1395&how-did-the-ottoman-dynasty-survive-in-exile- |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213104431/https://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/article/?ID=1395&how-did-the-ottoman-dynasty-survive-in-exile- |archive-date=2023-12-13 |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=www.ekrembugraekinci.com |language=tr}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2024}} His caliphate was opposed by the [[British Empire]], [[Zionists]], and [[Wahhabis]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Al-Momani |first1=Nidal Daoud Mohammad |year=2014 |title=Al-Sharif, Al-Hussein Bin Ali between the Zionists and the Palestinians in 1924 A decisive year in the political history of Al-Hussein |journal=Journal of Human Sciences |volume=2014 |issue=2 |pages=312–335 |doi=10.12785/jhs/20140213 |doi-access=free}}</ref> but he received support from a large part of the [[Muslims|Muslim population]] at the time,<ref>{{cite book |author1=British Secret Service |title=Jeddah Report 1-29 Mars 1924 |date=29 March 1924 |publisher=British Secret Service |location=Jeddah |page=FO 371/100CWE 3356}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kramer |first1=Martin |title=Islam assembled the advent of the Muslim Congresses |year=1986 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=1-59740-468-3}}{{page needed|date=January 2024}}</ref> as well as from [[Mehmed VI]].<ref>{{cite news |date=22 March 1924 |title=Central File: Decimal File 867.9111, Internal Affairs Of States, Public Press., Newspapers., Turkey, Clippings And Items., March 22, 1924 – March 12, 1925 |work=Turkey: Records of the U.S. Department of State, 1802–1949 |id={{Gale|C5111548903}}}}</ref> Although he lost the Hejaz and was exiled, then imprisoned by the [[British Empire|British]] on [[Cyprus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strohmeier |first1=Martin |date=3 September 2019 |title=The exile of Husayn b. Ali, ex-sharif of Mecca and ex-king of the Hijaz, in Cyprus (1925–1930) |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=733–755 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2019.1596895 |s2cid=164473838}}</ref> Hussein continued to use the title until his death in 1931.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sazonov |first1=Vladimir |title=Cultural Crossroads in the Middle East: The Historical, Cultural and Political Legacy of Intercultural Dialogue and Conflict from the Ancient Near East to the Present Day |last2=Espak |first2=Peeter |last3=Mölder |first3=Holger |last4=Saumets |first4=Andres |year=2020 |publisher=University of Tartu Press |isbn=978-9949-03-520-5}}{{page needed|date=January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bar |first1=Shmuel |date=January 2016 |title=The implications of the Caliphate |journal=Comparative Strategy |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1080/01495933.2016.1133994 |s2cid=157012525}}</ref>
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