Editing Chechen language (section)

===Arabic alphabet===

The first, most widespread modern orthography for Chechen was the Arabic script, adopted in the 19th century.<ref>Aliroev, I. Y. (1999). ''Чеченский язык (Chechen Language)'' (pp. 24–31). {{ISBN|587444-105-0}}</ref> Chechen was not a traditionally written language, but due to the public's familiarity with the Arabic script - as the script of instruction in the region's Islamic and Quranic schools - the Arabic alphabet was first standardized and adopted for Chechen during the reign of [[Imam Shamil]]. Islam has been the dominant religion in Chechnya since the 16th century, and there were 200 religious schools as well as more than 3000 pupils in Chechnya and Ingushetia. Thus the Arabic script was well established among the speakers of Chechen.<ref>{{cite web |title=Documentation and grammatical description of Chechen including the Cheberloi dialect &#124; Endangered Languages Archive |url=https://www.elararchive.org/dk0232/}}</ref>

However, the Arabic alphabet would not be suitable for Chechen, and so modifications would be needed. 
The Arabic alphabet underwent various iterations, improvements and modifications for the Chechen language. Within Chechen society, these modifications were not without controversy. The Muslim clergy and the more conservative segments of Chechen society initially resisted any changes to the Arabic script, with the belief that this script was sacred due to its association with Islam, and was not to be changed. The clergy and Islamic educational institutions opposed each and every iteration of proposed reforms in the Arabic script.<ref name="chentieva">Chentieva, M. D. (1958). History of Checheno-Ingush writing (История чечено-ингушской письменности). Checheno-Ingush Publishing House (Чечено-Ингушское кн. изд-во).</ref> While modifications to the Arabic script to match local languages had been common practice for centuries, for languages such as [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Ottoman Turkish]], the modifications in Chechen were done independently from these two nearby and influential literary traditions and were focused on the needs of the Chechen language. Initially, the Chechen Arabic alphabet looked like this (from left to right).

<br><span style="font-size:x-large;">ي ﻻ ه و ن م ل ڮ ك ڨ ق ف غ ع ظ ط ض ص ش س ز ر ذ د خ ح ج ث ت ب ا </span>

In this alphabet, two additional letters were added to the base Arabic script:<ref name="chentieva" />
# The letter {{script/Arabic| ڨ }}, equivalent to Cyrillic digraph "Къ" and representing the sound {{IPA| /qʼ/}};
# The letter {{script/Arabic| ڮ }} equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Кӏ" and representing the sound {{IPA| /kʼ/}}.
#* This letter was later revised to {{script/Arabic| ࢰ }}

In 1910, Sugaip Gaisunov proposed additional reforms that brought Arabic alphabet closer to Chechen's phonetic requirements. Sugaip Gaisunov introduced four additional consonants:<ref name="chentieva" />

# The letter {{script/Arabic| ڥ }}, equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Пӏ" and representing the sound {{IPA| /pʼ/}};
#* This letter was later revised to {{script/Arabic| ڢ }}
# The letter {{script/Arabic| ر࣮ }} ([[File:Reh with two dots below.svg|6px]]), equivalent to Cyrillic letters "Ц" and "Цӏ" and representing the sounds {{IPA| /ts/}} and {{IPA| /tsʼ/}};
# The letter {{script/Arabic| چ }}, equivalent to Cyrillic letters "Ч" and "Чӏ", representing the sounds {{IPA| /tʃ/}} and {{IPA| /t͡ʃʼ/}};
# The letter {{script/Arabic| گ }}, equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Г" and representing the sound {{IPA| /g/}};

In Sugaip Gaisunov's reforms, the letters {{script/Arabic| ص }} (''ṣād/sād'') and {{script/Arabic| ض }} (''zād/ḍād'') had their usage limited to Arabic loanwords but were not eliminated due to opposition from clergy and conservative segments of Chechen society. In another short-lasting modification, Sugaip Gaisunov proposed adding a overline (◌ٙ) ([https://www.compart.com/en/unicode/U+0659 U+0659]) over letters that can be read as either a consonant or a vowel, namely the letters {{script/Arabic| و }} (''waw'') (equivalent to Cyrillic letter "В" or to letters "О, Оь, У, Уь") and {{script/Arabic| ی }} (''yāʼ'') (equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Й" or to letter "И"). The overbar signified a vowel use when needed to avoid confusions. This modification did not persist in the Chechen alphabet. Thus, the 1910 iteration of the Arabic script continued being used until 1920.<ref name="chentieva" />

In 1920, two Chechen literaturists, A. Tugaev and T. Eldarkhanov, published a document. In this document they proposed new modifications, which were the addition of two new consonants:<ref name="chentieva" />

# The letter {{script/Arabic| څ }}, equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Чӏ" and representing the sound {{IPA| /t͡ʃʼ/}}.
#* This letter was later revised to {{script/Arabic| ڃ }}
#* Thus the letter {{script/Arabic| چ }} was reduced to only representing the sound {{IPA| /tʃ/}}, equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Ч";
# The letter {{script/Arabic| ڗ }}, equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Цӏ" and representing the sound {{IPA| /tsʼ/}};
#* Thus the letter {{script/Arabic| ر̤ }} ([[File:Reh with two dots below.svg|6px]]) was reduced to only representing the sound {{IPA| /ts/}}, equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Ц";

These modifications by A. Tugaev and T. Eldarkhanov were a great final step in creating a modified Arabic script that represents Chechen consonants. However, the Arabic alphabet still was not suitable in representing Chechen vowel sounds. Arabic script itself is an impure [[abjad]], meaning that most but not all vowels are shown with [[Arabic diacritics|diacritics]], which are in most cases left unwritten. The process of transforming Arabic script into a full alphabet for use by a non-Arabic language has been a common occurrence, and has been done in [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet|Uyghur]], [[Kazakh alphabets|Kazakh]], [[Sorani alphabet|Kurdish]] and several more Arabic-derived scripts.

Thus a final revision on Chechen Arabic script occurred, in which vowel sounds were standardized.

{| class="wikitable" style="table-layout:fixed;width:70%;text-align:center;"
|-
| colspan="6" bgcolor="#EFEFEF"| '''Vowel as first sound of word'''
|-
! А а || Аь аь || Е е<br>Э э || И и || О о<br>Оь оь || У у<br>Уь уь
|- dir="rtl"
| colspan="2" | <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|آ}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|اە}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|ایـ / ای}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|اوٓ}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|او}}</span>
|-
| colspan="6" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | '''Vowel as middle and final sound of word'''
|- dir="rtl"
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|ـا / ا / ـآ / آ}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|ـا / ا}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|ـە / ە}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|ـیـ / یـ / ـی / ی}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|ـوٓ / وٓ}}</span>
| <span style="font-size:120%;line-height:1.35;">{{Script/Arabic|ـو / و}}</span>
|-
| A a<Br>Ə ə || Ä ä || E e || I i || O o<br>Ö ö || U u<br>Ü ü
|}

Table below lists the 41 letters of the final iteration of Chechen Arabic Alphabet, as published by Chechen Authorities at the time, prior to 1925, their IPA values, and their Cyrillic equivalents.

{|class="wikitable Unicode" dir="rtl"
|+ Chechen Arabic alphabet (Pre-1925)<ref>Чеченская азбука - نوٓخچیی آلفبٰا (Нохчий алфба) (1925) https://archive.org/details/chechen-abat/page/n27/mode/2up</ref>
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Cyrillic equivalent)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|آ / ا}}</span><br><small>‌( А а / Аь аь )</small><br>{{IPAblink|ɑ}}/{{IPAblink|ɑː}}/{{IPAblink|æ}}/{{IPAblink|æː}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ب}}</span><br><small>‌(Б б)</small><br>{{IPAblink|b}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ت}}</span><br><small>‌(Т т)</small><br>{{IPAblink|t}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" bgcolor="#FFEFD5" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ث}}</span><br><small>‌(С с)</small><br>{{IPAblink|s}}‍
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ج}}</span><br><small>‌(Ж ж)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ʒ}}/{{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ح}}</span><br><small>‌(Хь хь)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ħ}}
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Cyrillic equivalent)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|خ}}</span><br><small>‌(Х х)</small><br>{{IPAblink|x}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|چ}}</span><br><small>‌(Ч ч)</small><br>{{IPAblink|t͡ʃ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ڃ}}</span><br><small>‌(ЧӀ чӀ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|t͡ʃʼ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|د}}</span><br><small>‌(Д д)</small><br>{{IPAblink|d}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" bgcolor="#FFEFD5" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ذ}}</span><br><small>‌(З з)</small><br>{{IPAblink|z}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ر}}</span><br><small>‌(Р р)</small><br>{{IPAblink|r}}
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Cyrillic equivalent)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ز}}</span><br><small>‌(З з)</small><br>{{IPAblink|z}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ر̤}}</span> ([[File:Reh with two dots below.svg|6px]])<br><small>‌(Ц ц)</small><br>{{IPAblink|t͡s}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ڗ}}</span><br><small>‌(ЦӀ цӀ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|t͡sʼ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|س}}</span><br><small>‌(С с)</small><br>{{IPAblink|s}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ش}}</span><br><small>‌(Ш ш)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ʃ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" bgcolor="#FFEFD5" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ص}}</span><br><small>‌(S s)</small><br>{{IPAblink|s}}
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Cyrillic equivalent)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" bgcolor="#FFEFD5" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ض}}</span><br><small>‌(З з)</small><br>{{IPAblink|z}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ط}}</span><br><small>‌(ТӀ тӀ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|tʼ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" bgcolor="#FFEFD5" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ظ}}</span><br><small>‌(З з)</small><br>{{IPAblink|z}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ع}}</span><br><small>‌(Ӏ ӏ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ʕ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|غ}}</span><br><small>‌(ГӀ гӀ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ɣ}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ف}}</span><br><small>‌(П п / Ф ф)</small><br>{{IPAblink|p}}/{{IPAblink|f}} 
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Cyrillic equivalent)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ڢ}}</span><br><small>‌(ПӀ пӀ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|pʼ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ق}}</span><br><small>‌(Кх кх)</small><br>{{IPAblink|q}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ڨ<br><small>‌(Къ къ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|qʼ}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ک}}</span><br><small>‌(К к)</small><br>{{IPAblink|k}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|گ}}</span><br><small>‌(Г г)</small><br>{{IPAblink|g}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ࢰ}}</span><br><small>‌(КӀ кӀ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|kʼ}}
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Cyrillic equivalent)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ل}}</span><br><small>‌(Л л)</small><br>{{IPAblink|l}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|م}}</span><br><small>‌(М м)</small><br>{{IPAblink|m}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ن}}</span><br><small>‌(Н н)</small><br>{{IPAblink|n}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|و}}</span><br><small>‌(В в)</small><br>{{IPAblink|v}}
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|او / و}}</span><br><small>‌(У у / Уь уь)</small><br>{{IPAblink|y}}/{{IPAblink|u}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|اوٓ / وٓ}}</span><br><small>‌(О о / Оь оь)</small><br>{{IPAblink|o}}/{{IPAblink|ɔː}}/{{IPAblink|ø}} 	 	
|-
! Arabic<br><small>(Cyrillic equivalent)</small><br><nowiki>[</nowiki>[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ھ}}</span><br><small>‌(ХӀ хӀ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|h}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|اە / ە}}</span><br><small>‌(Е е / Э э)</small><br>{{IPAblink|e}}/{{IPAblink|ɛː}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ی}}</span><br><small>‌(Й й)</small><br>{{IPAblink|j}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ای / ی}}</span><br><small>‌(	И и)</small><br>{{IPAblink|i}} 
| style="width:7em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | <span style="font-size:100%;line-height:1.35;">{{script/Arabic|ئ}}</span><br><small>‌(Ъ ъ)</small><br>{{IPAblink|ʔ}}
|}