Editing Cherokee language (section)

== Grammar ==
{{main|Cherokee grammar}}
Cherokee, like many Native American languages, is [[polysynthetic]], meaning that many [[morphemes]] may be linked together to form a single word, which may be of great length. Cherokee [[verbs]] must contain at a minimum a [[pronoun|pronominal]] [[prefix]], a verb root, an [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] suffix, and a modal suffix,{{sfn|Feeling|Kopris|Lachler|Van_Tuyl|2003|p=16}} for a total of 17 verb tenses.<ref name="Standingdeer" /> They can also bear prepronominal prefixes, reflexive prefixes, and derivational suffixes. Given all possible combinations of affixes, each regular verb can have 21,262 inflected forms.

For example, the verb form {{lang|chr-Latn|gééga}}, 'I am going', has each of these elements:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb form {{lang|chr|ᎨᎦ}} '''{{lang|chr-Latn|gééga}}'''
|-
! colspan="2"|{{lang|chr|Ꭸ}}
! colspan="2"|{{lang|chr|Ꭶ}}
|-
| g-  || -éé- || -g- || -a
|-
| <small>PRONOMINAL PREFIX</small><br/> 1 sg|| <small>VERB ROOT</small> <br/>'to go' || <small>ASPECT SUFFIX</small><br/>present || <small>MODAL SUFFIX</small>
|}

The pronominal prefix is {{lang|chr-Latn|g-}}, which indicates first person singular. The verb root is {{lang|chr-Latn|-éé-}}, 'to go.' The aspect suffix that this verb employs for the present-tense stem is {{lang|chr-Latn|-g-}}. The present-tense modal suffix for regular verbs in Cherokee is {{lang|chr-Latn|-a}}.

Cherokee makes three [[Grammatical number|number]] distinctions on pronouns: singular, dual and plural. It does not make gender distinction,{{sfn|Feeling|1975|p=xiii}} but does distinguish [[animacy]] in third person pronouns. Cherokee also makes the distinction between inclusive and exclusive pronouns in the first person dual and plural. There is no distinction between dual and plural in the 3rd person. This makes a total of 10 persons.

The following is the conjugation of this verb form in all 10 persons.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=60}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Full conjugation in the present progressive aspect of verbal root {{lang|chr-Latn|-éé-}} 'to be going'
|-
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st
! exclusive
| rowspan="2" | {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎨᎦ&emsp;(ge-ga)|''gééga''|I'm going}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎣᏍᏕᎦ&emsp;(o-s-de-ga)|oòsdééga|We two (not you) are going}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎣᏤᎦ&emsp;(o-tse-ga)|oòjééga|We're (not you) all going}}
|-
! inclusive
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎢᏁᎦ&emsp;(i-ne-ga) |iìnééga|You &amp; I are going}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎢᏕᎦ&emsp;(i-de-ga)|iìdééga|We're (&amp; you) all going}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎮᎦ&emsp;(he-ga) |hééga|You're going}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᏍᏕᎦ&emsp;(s-de-ga) |sdééga|You two are going}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎢᏤᎦ&emsp;(i-tse-ga) |iìjééga|You're all going}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎡᎦ&emsp;(e-ga)|ééga |She/he/it's going}}
| colspan="2" | {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎠᏁᎦ&emsp;(a-ne-ga)|aànééga|They are going}}
|}

The translation uses the present progressive ('at this time I am going'). Cherokee differentiates between progressive ('I am going') and habitual ('I go') more than English does. For the habitual, the aspectual prefix is {{lang|chr-Latn|-g-}} "imperfective" or "incompletive" (here identical to present, but can vary for other verbs) and the modal prefix {{lang|chr-Latn|-óóʼi}} "habitual".

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Full conjugation in the habitual aspect of verbal root {{lang|chr-Latn|-éé-}} 'to often/usually go'{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=60}}
|-
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st
! exclusive
| rowspan="2" | {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎨᎪᎢ&emsp;(ge-go-i)|géégóóʼi|I often/usually go}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎣᏍᏕᎪᎢ&emsp;(o-s-de-go-i)|oòsdéégóóʼi|We two (not you) often/usually go}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎣᏤᎪᎢ&emsp;(o-tse-go-i)|oòjéégóóʼi|We (not you) often/usually go}}
|-
! inclusive
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎢᏁᎪᎢ&emsp;(i-ne-go-i)|iìnéégóóʼi|You &amp; I often/usually go}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎢᏕᎪᎢ&emsp;(i-de-go-i)|iìdéégóóʼi|We (&amp; you) often/usually go}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎮᎪᎢ&emsp;(he-go-i)|héégóóʼi|You often/usually go}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᏍᏕᎪᎢ&emsp;(s-de-go-i)|sdéégóóʼi|You two often/usually go}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎢᏤᎪᎢ&emsp;(i-tse-go-i)|iìjéégóóʼi|You often/usually go}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd
| {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎡᎪᎢ&emsp;(e-go-i)|éégóóʼi|She/he/it often/usually goes}}
| colspan="2" | {{fs interlinear|lang=chr|ᎠᏁᎪᎢ&emsp;(a-ne-go-i)|aànéégóóʼi|They often/usually go}}
|}

=== Pronouns and pronominal prefixes ===
Like many Native American languages, Cherokee has many pronominal prefixes that can index both subject and object. Pronominal prefixes always appear on verbs and can also appear on adjectives and nouns.{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|p=49}} There are two separate words which function as pronouns: {{lang|chr-Latn|aya}} 'I, me' and {{lang|chr-Latn|nihi}} 'you'.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Cherokee pronominal prefixes before a consonant, vowel
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | 1st person
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
! colspan="2" | 3rd person
|-
! set I || set II
! set I || set II
! set I || set II
|-
! colspan="2" | singular
| {{lang|chr-Latn|ji-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|g-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|agi-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|agw-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|hi-, h-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|ja-, j-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|ga/a-, X-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|u-, X-}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | dual
! inclusive
| {{lang|chr-Latn|ini-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|in-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|gini-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|gin-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|sdi-, sd-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|desdi-, desd-}}
| &ndash;
| &ndash;
|-
! exclusive
| {{lang|chr-Latn|osdi-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|osd-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|ogini-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|ogin-}}
| &ndash;
| &ndash;
| &ndash;
| &ndash;
|-
! rowspan="2" | plural
! inclusive
| {{lang|chr-Latn|idi-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|id-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|igi-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|ig-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|iji-, ij-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|deji-, dej-}}
| &ndash;
| &ndash;
|-
! exclusive
| {{lang|chr-Latn|oji-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|oj-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|ogi-}}, {{lang|chr-Latn|og-}}
| &ndash;
| &ndash;
| {{lang|chr-Latn|ani-, an-}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|uni, un-}}
|}

=== Compound pronouns ===
A Cherokee pronoun's number marks not only the agent of a verb, but often the object as well. This is the case if the depending object was already mentioned and would be substituted by a separate pronoun in English as well. Contrary to English, animacy is marked but gender is not.

(These suffixes have to be treated in a CV syllabary structure.) Set I and II join here except if written ''A'' | ''B''.
{| class="wikitable"
!{{diagonal split header|Subject|Object}}
!1 s
!2 s
!3 s an
!3 s in
!1 d inc
!1 d exc
!2 d
!1 p inc
!1 p exc
!2 p
!3 p an
!3 p in
|-
|1 singular
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gv(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ji(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|g(e)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sdv(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ijv(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gaji(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|deg(a)-}}
|-
|2 singular
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sg(w)(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|hi(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|h(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sgini(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|isgi(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gahi(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|deh(i)-}}
|-
|3 singular (animate)
|{{lang|chr-Latn|agw(a)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|j(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|g(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|g(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gin(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ogin(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sd(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ig(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|og(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ij(i)-}}
|deg(i)-
|{{lang|chr-Latn|deg(i)-}}
|-
|1 dual inclusive
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|en(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|in(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gen(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|den(i)-}}
|-
|1 dual exclusive
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sdv(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|osd(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|osd(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sdv(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ijv(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gosd(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|dosd(i)-}}
|-
|2 dual
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sgin(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|esd(i)}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sd(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|sgin(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|isgi(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gesd(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|desd(i)-}}
|-
|1 plural inclusive
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ed(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|id(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ged(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ded(i)-}}
|-
|1 plural exclusive
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ijv(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|oj(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|oj(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ijv(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ijv(y)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|goj(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|doj(i)-}}
|-
|2 plural
|{{lang|chr-Latn|isgi(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ej(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|ij(i)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|isgi(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|isgi(y)-}}
|&ndash;
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gej(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|dej(i)-}}
|-
|3 plural (animate)
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gvg(w)(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gej(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|<nowiki>an(i)- | un(i)-</nowiki>}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|<nowiki>an(i)- | un(i)-</nowiki>}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gegin(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gogin(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gesd(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|geg(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gog(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|gej(i)-}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|<nowiki>gan(i)- | gun(i)-</nowiki>}}
|{{lang|chr-Latn|<nowiki>dan(i)- | dun(i)-</nowiki>}}
|}

Some prefixes are the same, even though they mean their opposite. Understanding is ensured by regular stem changes within the verb.

=== Shape classifiers in verbs ===
Some Cherokee verbs require special classifiers which denote a physical property of the direct object. Only around 20 common verbs require one of these classifiers (such as the equivalent of 'hold'). The classifiers can be grouped into five categories:

* Live
* Flexible (most common)
* Long (narrow, not flexible)
* Indefinite (solid, heavy relative to size), also used as default category{{sfn|King|1975}}
* Liquid (or container of)

Example:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Conjugation of 'hand him{{nbsp}}...'
|-
! Classifier type
! Cherokee
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
| Live
| {{lang|chr|ᎯᎧᏏ}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|hikasi}}
| Hand him (something living)
|-
| Flexible
| {{lang|chr|ᎯᏅᏏ}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|hinvsi}}
| Hand him (something like clothes, rope)
|-
| Long, indefinite
| {{lang|chr|ᎯᏗᏏ}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|hidisi}}
| Hand him (something like a broom, pencil)
|-
| Indefinite
| {{lang|chr|ᎯᎥᏏ}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|hivsi}}
| Hand him (something like food, book)
|-
| Liquid
| {{lang|chr|ᎯᏁᎥᏏ}}
| {{lang|chr-Latn|hinevsi}}
| Hand him (something like water)
|}

There have been reports that the youngest speakers of Cherokee are using only the indefinite forms, suggesting a decline in usage or full acquisition of the system of shape classification.{{sfn|Scancarelli|2005}} Cherokee is the only Iroquoian language with this type of classificatory verb system, leading linguists to reanalyze it as a potential remnant of a noun incorporation system in Proto-Iroquoian.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Evolution of Noun Incorporation|last=Mithun|first=Marianne|date=1984|journal=Language|doi=10.1353/lan.1984.0038|issue=4|pages=847–894 |volume=60|s2cid=143600392}}</ref> However, given the non-productive nature of noun incorporation in Cherokee, other linguists have suggested that classificatory verbs are the product of historical contact between Cherokee and non-Iroquoian languages, and instead that the noun incorporation system in Northern Iroquoian languages developed later.<ref>Chafe, Wallace. 2000. "Florescence as a force in grammaticalization." ''Reconstructing Grammar'', ed. Spike Gildea, pp. 39–64. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.</ref>

=== Word order ===
All orderings between subjects, verbs, and objects are possible in Cherokee sentences, but word order preferences are influenced by a number of factors. Some preferences are determined by [[information structure]]; items that express contrast with alternatives generally precede other arguments,{{sfn|Hsu|Frey|2024}} and items that express new information typically precede those that refer to entities already in the conversation.{{sfn|Scancarelli|1987|pp=181-198}} Word order is also influenced by [[Thematic relation|thematic role]], such that agent arguments of transitive sentences (subjects) typically precede theme arguments (objects).{{sfn|Feeling|1975|p=353}}{{sfn|King|1975|p=111}}{{sfn|Hsu|Frey|2024}} Verbs typically occur either at the end of the sentence or followed by exactly one phrase; it is highly uncommon to find two phrases following the verb in a single sentence.{{sfn|Hsu|Frey|2024}} In [[Copula (linguistics)|copular]] sentences, the subject complement must precede the copular verb.{{sfn|Akkuş|2018}} Negative sentences have a different word order.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Within the nominal expression, some relative orders are fixed, while others are flexible. Demonstratives, such as {{lang|chr|ᎾᏍᎩ}} {{lang|chr-Latn|nasgi}} ('that') or {{lang|chr|ᎯᎠ}} {{lang|chr-Latn|hia}} ('this'), occur at the beginning of noun phrases.{{sfn|Scancarelli|1987|p=175}} Numerals follow demonstratives, and precede both nouns and adjectives.{{sfn|Montgomery-Anderson|2008a|p=516}} Adjectives may either precede or follow nouns. Relative clauses follow the nouns that they modify.{{sfn|Feeling|1975|p=353}} Adverbs precede the verbs that they are modifying. For example, 'she's speaking loudly' is {{lang|chr|ᎠᏍᏓᏯ ᎦᏬᏂᎭ}} {{lang|chr-Latn|asdaya gawoniha}} (literally, 'loud she's-speaking').{{sfn|Feeling|1975|p=353}}

In affirmative present tense sentences, no verb is required to express a copular, predicative relationship between two noun phrases. In such a case, word order is flexible. For example, {{lang|chr|Ꮎ ᎠᏍᎦᏯ ᎠᎩᏙᏓ}} {{lang|chr-Latn|na asgaya agidoda}} ('that man is my father'). Adjectives can also be used predicatively with a noun phrase subject, as in {{lang|chr|ᎠᎩᏙᏓ ᎤᏔᎾ}} {{lang|chr-Latn|agidoda utana}} ('my father is big').{{sfn|Feeling|1975|p=354}}