Editing Federal Triangle (section)

==Ronald Reagan Building construction==
{{main|Ronald Reagan Building}}

===Context===
[[File:2021 Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center.jpg|thumb|The [[Pennsylvania Avenue]] entrance to the [[Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center|Ronald Reagan Building]]]]
Even as parking and traffic issues continued to cause controversy at Federal Triangle in the 1960s and 1970s, efforts were under way to remove the parking lot and "finish" Federal Triangle by building a large office building on the site.  The first effort came in 1972, when the [[Richard M. Nixon|Nixon administration]] proposed building a $126 million office building on the lot in time for the national bicentennial in 1976.<ref>Eisen, Jack. "76 Finish Sought for 'Triangle'." ''Washington Post.'' January 25, 1972.</ref> But this proposal was never seriously contemplated or funded. One outcome of the Nixon proposal, however, was "the Weese Plan." The Nixon administration commissioned the architecture planning firm of Harry Weese & Associates to come up with a master plan for the continued development of Federal Triangle.<ref name="SquareDeal" /> The Master Plan (which became known as "the Weese Plan") did not only propose a massive new federal office building on the parking lots of the Triangle.  It also proposed a new series of pedestrian paths throughout the complex, titled "Federal Walk."<ref name="SquareDeal" /> Federal Walk would not only be a network of sidewalks designed to showcase the architecture of Federal Triangle; it also included destinations such as spots for tourists to wait for tours of the interiors of each building, outdoor art, places for rest and contemplation, and even cafes and restaurants.<ref name="SquareDeal" /> Federal Walk was gradually implemented in piecemeal fashion over the next 15 years, although it still remained incomplete as of 1997.<ref name="SquareDeal" /> GSA held a competition in 1982 to select a design for a 10-story office building to replace the parking lot, but planning bodies refused to approve the plan.<ref>Miller, Tim. "GSA to Begin Selection Of Triangle Designers." ''Washington Post.'' February 20, 1982; Eisen, Jack. "Office Building on Great Plaza Denied." ''Washington Post.'' April 23, 1982.</ref>

Plans for construction of an office building on the Federal Triangle parking lot site found support in 1986. The [[Federal City Council]],<ref>[http://www.federalcitycouncil.org/ Federal City Council Web site.]</ref> a private civic organization which had been promoting the construction of a $200 million international trade center in the District of Columbia, advocated construction of its proposed building at Federal Triangle.<ref>Mintz, John. "New Sites Eyed In District for Trade Center." ''Washington Post.'' May 23, 1986.</ref> [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]] officials favored the plan, and in October 1986 the proposal received the backing of the General Services Administration.<ref>Havemann, Judith. "Trade Center Draws Support." ''Washington Post.'' October 30, 1986.</ref> The idea received support from [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] in Congress as well, especially from Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a former Kennedy administration aide who had long championed completion of the Federal Triangle.<ref>Havemann, Judith. "JFK Planted Seeds After Inaugural." ''Washington Post.'' August 8, 1987.</ref> There was some opposition to the idea from planning officials and others, who were dismayed at the loss of parking in the downtown area and who feared that the trade center's proposed 1,300 to 2,600 underground parking slots would not be built due to poor soil conditions.<ref>"It May Be Ugly, But at Least It's a Parking Lot." ''Washington Post.'' August 16, 1987.</ref> A bill was passed (almost unanimously) by Congress on August 7, 1987, to provide $362 million for the construction of an "International Cultural and Trade Center" on the parking lot at Federal Triangle.<ref name="TriangleVoted">Havemann, Judith. "Completion of Federal Triangle Voted." ''Washington Post.'' August 8, 1987.</ref> The plan was to provide office space for both the Justice and [[United States Department of State|State]] departments.<ref name="TriangleVoted" /> The legislation also provided that although the U.S. government would finance the building, a private developer would construct it.<ref name="TriangleVoted" /> The federal government would lease space from the private developer for 30 years, after which ownership of the building would revert to the government.<ref name="TriangleVoted" /><ref name="McPherson" /><ref>Crenshaw, Albert B. "Funding Plan Is Unusual For Government Building." ''Washington Post.'' January 17, 1990.</ref> The bill also required the building to be financially self-supporting within two years of its completion.<ref name="Ballooning" /> The rental prices throughout the lease's term would remain stable.<ref name="McPherson" /> It was only the fifth time the government had signed a "lease-to-own" agreement.<ref name="TriangleVoted" /> With 1.4 million square feet (130,200 square metres) of office space and 500,000 square feet (46,500 square metres) of space for trade center activities, the planned trade center would be larger than any other federally owned building except for [[The Pentagon]].<ref name="TriangleVoted" /> The bill also required that the trade center be "designed in harmony with historical and government buildings in the vicinity, ... reflect the symbolic importance and historic character of Pennsylvania Avenue and the Nation's Capital, and ... represent the dignity and stability of the Federal Government."<ref name="McPherson">McPherson, Harry. "A Winner On the Avenue." ''Washington Post.'' August 21, 1987.</ref> A nine-member panel was established to approve any plans, and included the Secretaries of State, [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]], and Commerce; the [[List of mayors of Washington, D.C.|Mayor of the District of Columbia]]; and five members of the public.<ref name="FiveNamed">"Five Named to Panel On Cultural Center." ''Washington Post.'' April 7, 1988.</ref> The building was expected to be completed in 1992.<ref name="TriangleVoted" /> President [[Ronald Reagan]] signed the ''Federal Triangle Development Act'' into law on August 22, 1987.<ref>"President Signs Federal Triangle Expansion Act." ''Washington Post.'' August 23, 1987.</ref>

===Design and construction===
[[File:Ronald Reagan Bld.jpg|thumb|The 14th Street NW facade of the [[Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center|Ronald Reagan Building]] in 2006]]
Preliminary design specifications required that the final building be no taller than the existing Federal Triangle structures, be constructed of similar materials, emphasize pedestrian traffic, and have a "sympathetic" architectural style.<ref name="Energizing">Forgey, Benjamin. "Energizing the Great Plaza." ''Washington Post.'' April 18, 1987.</ref> An architectural model by the firms of [[Notter Finegold & Alexander]], Mariani & Associates, and Bryant & Bryant depicted a building with a long, uninterrupted facade along 14th Street NW and two colonnaded hemicycles on the east side (matching the Post Office Department building's hemicycle).<ref name="Energizing" /> The preliminary design specs were criticized for not more clearly specifying the architectural style,<ref name="Energizing" /> for bringing another 10,000 new workers to Federal Triangle each day, and for reducing the required number of parking spaces by 30 percent to just 1,300.<ref>Hilzenrath, David S. "Huge Office Plan Draws Criticism." ''Washington Post.'' April 16, 1988.</ref> The five public members of the design committee were named on April 6, 1988, and were former Senator [[Charles H. Percy]], chair; [[Harry McPherson]], president of the Federal City Council; Donald A. Brown, chair of the Federal City Council's International Center Task Force; Michael R. Garder, a member of the [[Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation]]; and Judah C. Sommer, a local attorney.<ref name="FiveNamed" /> Groundbreaking on the now-$350 million building was scheduled for 1989, and completion in 1993.<ref name="FiveNamed" /> Disagreements broke out in mid-1988 over which federal agencies should take up residence in the structure, and whether they should be trade- or foreign-policy related.<ref>Hilzenrath, David S. "Plan to Move Justice Dept. Is Attacked." ''Washington Post.'' June 25, 1988; Hilzenrath, David S. "Federal Tenants Compete for Complex." ''Washington Post.'' December 3, 1988.</ref> Seven designs were submitted in June 1989, each incorporating a base-middle-crown structure and enclosed in traditional materials (limestone facade, vertical glass windows, terra-cotta roof tiles).<ref name="CompetingComplete">Forgey, Benjamin. "Competing to Complete the Triangle." ''Washington Post.'' June 10, 1989.</ref> Each design incorporated a new home for the [[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] (a [[Smithsonian Institution]] entity), an outdoor memorial to President [[Woodrow Wilson]], and exhibition and retail space.<ref name="CompetingComplete" />

Construction began in mid-1989. Contractors estimated the cost of the building at between $550 million and $800 million, far higher than the anticipated $350 million original price tag.<ref>Hilzenrath, David S. "Bidding for a Federal Triangle Bonanza." ''Washington Post.'' June 10, 1989.</ref> The design committee picked the $738.3 million design submitted by [[Pei Cobb Freed & Partners]] in October 1989.<ref name="Ballooning" /><ref>Wheeler, Linda. "Federal Triangle Developer Picked." ''Washington Post.'' October 19, 1989.</ref> A consortium led by New York developer [[William Zeckendorf Jr.]] was chosen to build and operate the building and lease it to the government.<ref name="Flourish" /> One of the firms which had lost this contract subsequently challenged the bidding process.<ref>"Development Company Challenges Award of Federal Triangle Contract." ''Washington Post.'' March 3, 1990.</ref>

===Cancellation, completion, and opening===
[[File:Ronald Reagan Building atrium.jpg|thumb|The interior atrium of the [[Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center|Ronald Reagan Building]] on Federal Triangle serves as a major event space.]]
Significant cost increases led to the project being mothballed by the [[George H. W. Bush]] administration. The General Services Administration refused to sign the draft lease, arguing that the building's rental costs were too high and would cost (rather than save) the government $18 million to $24 million a year.<ref name="Ballooning">Hilzenrath, David S. "Ballooning Costs Delay Federal Triangle Project." ''Washington Post.'' July 20, 1990.</ref> Although Pei Cobb Freed agreed to investigate design changes to make the project less costly, at least one member of Congress declared the project dead.<ref name="Ballooning" /> In September 1990, the architectural team made changes which cut $82 million from the cost of the building (including the elimination of two theaters, scaling down the reception hall, using plaster rather than stone, substituting aluminum for bronze in the trim, and reducing the size of interior doors), reducing the price tag to $656 million.<ref name="Flourish">Hilzenrath, David S. "$656 Million Building Set for Federal Triangle." ''Washington Post.'' September 22, 1990.</ref> Delta Partnership, a development consortium led by New York developer William Zeckendorf Jr., was chosen to operate the building and lease it to the government.<ref name="Flourish" /> Another design change came in January 1991, when the number of parking spaces rose by 12.6 percent to 2,500 spaces.<ref>Camp, Margaret. "Parking Push Comes To Shove." ''Washington Post.'' January 10, 1991.</ref> But the changes did not resolve the controversies enveloping the project. Design committee member Donald A. Brown quit the committee in late 1991, complaining that the Bush administration was meddling in the project's design.<ref>Lewis, Nancy. "Developer Quits Federal Triangle Trade Center Panel." ''Washington Post.'' January 1, 1992.</ref> Two days later, [[Eleanor Holmes Norton]], D.C.'s delegate to Congress, repeated these charges.<ref>Jenkins, Jr., Kent. "Norton Names 'Villains' In D.C. Trade Center Fight." ''Washington Post.'' January 3, 1992; Pyatt, Jr., Rudoph A. "In Dubious Battle for a Boondoggle." ''Washington Post.'' January 13, 1992.</ref> On January 19, 1992, even as the foundation for the trade center was being dug, the GSA said the building would not achieve financial self-sufficiency.<ref>"A Harder Look at the ICTC." ''Washington Post.'' January 20, 1992; "Boondoggle on 'America's Main Street'." ''Washington Post.'' January 24, 1992.</ref> A separate report commissioned by the Bush administration reached similar conclusions.<ref name="Scraps">Spolar, Christine. "White House Scraps D.C. Trade Center." ''Washington Post.'' January 26, 1992.</ref> On January 25, 1992, the Bush administration cancelled the international trade center construction project.<ref name="Scraps" /> Days later, a [[United States district court]] ruled that Delta Partnership had been chosen in violation of federal contracting guidelines, although the court also refused to overturn the award after finding no bias in the award process.<ref>Pyatt, Jr., Rudloph A. "Flawed Selection Process Taints Downtown Federal Complex." ''Washington Post.'' January 30, 1992.</ref> Construction experts decried the decision, saying that the building's costs could balloon to more than $1.2 billion if construction were resumed at a later time.<ref>Grimsley, Kirstin Downey. "Federal Triangle's Points of Contention." ''Washington Post.'' December 5, 1993.</ref>

The decision to cancel the building was reversed on December 2, 1993, by the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton administration]].<ref name="Revived">Hamilton, Martha M. and Grimsley, Kirstin Downey. "International Trade Center Plan Revived." ''Washington Post.'' December 3, 1993.</ref> Although the building was originally designed to be a major tourist destination and provide a boost to economic development in the downtown area, the building was repurposed to be a simple office building.<ref name="Revived" /> Rather than a mix of federal and private renters, federal agencies were now scheduled to occupy 80 percent of the office space.<ref name="Progress">Duggan, Paul. "Progress on a Massive Scale." ''Washington Post.'' September 17, 1995.</ref> By January 1995, the structure was two years behind schedule.<ref>Haggerty, Maryann. "Hard Floors and Soft Numbers at Federal Triangle Construction." ''Washington Post.'' January 9, 1995.</ref> By September 1995, a tentative occupancy date of December 1996 had been set.<ref name="Progress" /> The building was named for former President Ronald Reagan in October 1995.<ref>"Federal Building May Be Named In Reagan's Honor." ''Washington Post.'' October 13, 1995.</ref> There were still occasional design glitches.  For example, the GSA approved two major sculptures for the Woodrow Wilson Plaza in 1994, abruptly ordered a halt to work on the sculptures in June 1996, and then ordered work to proceed again in July 1996.<ref>Trescott, Jacqueline. "Federal Agency Halts Art Project." ''Washington Post.'' June 22, 1996; Trescott, Jacqueline. "Sculptors Put Back to Work." ''Washington Post.'' July 30, 1996.</ref> Construction slipped further, and by January 1997 occupancy was scheduled for the following summer.<ref>Haggery, Maryann. "At Federal Triangle, a Pretty Facade on an Unfinished Work." ''Washington Post.'' January 21, 1997.</ref> Construction continued to fall behind schedule, with completion not expected until summer 1998.<ref name="NearsDebut">Behr, Peter and Lelen, Kenneth. "Reagan Building Nears Its Debut." ''Washington Post.'' June 5, 1997.</ref> Nonetheless, federal officials planned to move more than 480 Environmental Protection Agency employees into the building in July 1997.<ref name="NearsDebut" /><ref>Barr, Stephen. "Grand Tour of Reagan Building Reinforces Facility's Grand Scale." ''Washington Post.'' June 6, 1997.</ref> By this time, security concerns had led to several additional design changes (including a reduction in the number of parking spaces to just 1,900), and the cost of the structure had risen to $738 million.<ref name="NearsDebut" />

The Ronald Reagan Building opened on May 5, 1998.<ref name="Nostalgia"/> President Bill Clinton and former First Lady [[Nancy Reagan]] dedicated the building.<ref name="Nostalgia">Montgomery, David and Wheeler, Linda. "A Soaring Reagan Tribute." ''Washington Post.'' May 6, 1998.</ref> Three large pieces of artwork were included in the building. The first, by sculptor and D.C. native Stephen Robin, is a gigantic rose with stem and a lily, both made out of cast aluminum and lying on stone pedestals.<ref name="Capstone">Forgey, Benjamin. "The Capstone of the Federal Triangle." ''Washington Post.'' April 25, 1998.</ref> The second, by [[African American]] D.C. native [[Martin Puryear]], is a [[Minimalism|Minimalist]] tower of brown welded metal titled "Bearing Witness" which stands in Woodrow Wilson Plaza.<ref name="Capstone" /> The third, located inside the building's atrium, is a multi-story neon installation by [[Keith Sonnier]] titled "Route Zenith."<ref name="Capstone" /> The structure's final cost was $818 million.<ref name="Nostalgia" />