Editing Flax (section)

==={{anchor|Flax seeds}} Flax seeds===
Flax seeds occur in brown and yellow (golden) varieties.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Grant |first=Amanda |date=6 March 2007 |title=Superfoods |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2007/mar/06/healthandwellbeing.health1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921210717/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2007/mar/06/healthandwellbeing.health1 |archive-date=21 September 2016}}</ref> Most types of these basic varieties have similar [[nutrition]]al characteristics and equal numbers of short-chain [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s. Yellow flax seeds, called solin ([[trade name]] "[[Linola]]"),<ref name="CRS">{{citation
| url = http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/05jun/97-905.pdf 
| title = Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition
| editor = Jasper Womach
| display-editors = et al
| year = 2005 
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810044532/http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/05jun/97-905.pdf 
|archive-date=10 August 2011
| url-status = usurped
| publisher = Congressional Research Service
| place = Library of Congress
}}</ref> have a similar oil profile to brown flax seeds and both are very high in omega-3s ([[alpha-linolenic acid]] (ALA), specifically).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sargi |first1=Sheisa Cyléia |last2=Silva |first2=Beatriz Costa |last3=Santos |first3=Hevelyse Munise Celestino |last4=Montanher |first4=Paula Fernandes |last5=Boeing |first5=Joana Schuelter |last6=Santos Júnior |first6=Oscar Oliveira |last7=Souza |first7=Nilson Evelázio |last8=Visentainer |first8=Jesuí Vergílio |date=26 July 2013 |title=Antioxidant capacity and chemical composition in seeds rich in omega-3: chia, flax, and perilla |journal=Food Science and Technology |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=541–548 |doi=10.1590/S0101-20612013005000057|s2cid=41096264 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Flax seeds produce a [[vegetable oil]] known as flax seed oil or [[linseed oil]], which is one of the oldest commercial oils. It is an [[edible oil]] obtained by [[expeller pressing]] and sometimes followed by [[solvent extraction]]. Solvent-processed flax seed oil has been used for centuries as a [[drying oil]] in painting and varnishing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pigments through the Ages – Renaissance and Baroque (1400–1600) |url=http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/renaissance.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719190829/http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/intro/renaissance.html |archive-date=19 July 2012}}</ref>

Although brown flax seed varieties may be consumed as readily as the yellow ones, and have been for thousands of years, these varieties are more commonly used in paints, fiber, and cattle feed.

====Culinary====
[[File:Linseed rolls crude.JPG|alt=Small pieces of dough being topped with flax seeds before baking in a commercial bakery|thumb|Bread rolls being topped with flax seeds before baking]]

A 100-gram portion of ground flax seed supplies about {{convert|2234|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]], 41&nbsp;g of fat, 28&nbsp;g of fiber, and 20&nbsp;g of protein.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flax nutrition profile |url=http://www.flaxcouncil.ca/english/index.jsp?p=g3&mp=nutrition |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723062551/http://www.flaxcouncil.ca/english/index.jsp?p=g3&mp=nutrition |archive-date=23 July 2009 |access-date=8 May 2008}}</ref> Whole flax seeds are chemically stable, but ground flax seed meal, because of [[Redox|oxidation]], may go [[rancidity|rancid]] when left exposed to air at room temperature in as little as a week.<ref name="DieteticAss">{{Cite journal |last1=Alpers |first1=Linda |last2=Sawyer-Morse, Mary K. |date=August 1996 |title=Eating Quality of Banana Nut Muffins and Oatmeal Cookies Made With Ground Flaxseed |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=96 |issue=8 |pages=794–796 |doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(96)00219-2 |pmid=8683012}}</ref> Refrigeration and storage in sealed containers will keep ground flax seed meal for a longer period before it turns rancid. Under conditions similar to those found in commercial bakeries, trained sensory panelists could not detect differences between bread made with freshly ground flax seed and bread made with flax seed that had been [[Mill (grinding)|milled]] four months earlier and stored at room temperature.<ref name="Malcolmson">{{Cite journal |last=Malcolmson |first=L.J. |date=April 2006 |title=Storage stability of milled flaxseed |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=235–238 |doi=10.1007/s11746-000-0038-0 |s2cid=85575934}}</ref> If packed immediately without exposure to air and light, milled flax seed is stable against excessive oxidation when stored for nine months at room temperature,<ref name="Chen">{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Z-Y |year=1994 |title=Oxidative stability of flaxseed lipids during baking |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=629–632 |doi=10.1007/BF02540591 |s2cid=84981982}}</ref> and under [[warehouse]] conditions, for 20 months at ambient temperatures.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Three [[polyphenol|phenolic]] [[glucoside]]s—[[secoisolariciresinol diglucoside]], [[p-coumaric acid]] glucoside, and [[ferulic acid]] glucoside—are present in commercial bread containing flax seed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Strandås |first=C. |year=2008 |title=Phenolic glucosides in bread containing flaxseed |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=110 |issue=4 |pages=997–999 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.088 |pmid=26047292}}</ref>

=====Nutrition=====

{{nutritionalvalue | name=Flax seeds | kJ=2234| protein=18.29 g | fat=42.16 g | satfat=3.663 g | monofat=7.527 g | polyfat=28.730 g | omega3fat=22.8 g | omega6fat=5.9 g | carbs=28.88 g | fiber=27.3 g | | sugars=1.55 g | iron_mg=5.73 | calcium_mg=255 | magnesium_mg=392 | phosphorus_mg=642 | potassium_mg=813| zinc_mg=4.34 | vitC_mg=0.6 | pantothenic_mg=0.985 | vitB6_mg=0.473 | folate_ug=87 | thiamin_mg=1.644 | riboflavin_mg=0.161 | niacin_mg=3.08|water=7 g  | source_usda=1 | note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169414/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]}}

Flax seeds are 7% water, 18% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], 29% [[carbohydrate]]s, and 42% [[fat]] (table). In {{convert|100|g}} as a reference amount, flax seeds provide 534 [[kilocalorie]]s and contain high levels (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of protein, [[dietary fiber]], several [[B vitamins]], and [[dietary minerals]].<ref name=nd/><ref name=usda/> Flax seeds are especially rich in [[thiamine]], [[magnesium]], and [[phosphorus]] (DVs above 90%) (table).

As a percentage of total [[fat]], flax seeds contain 54% omega-3 fatty acids (mostly [[alpha-Linolenic acid|ALA]]), 18% [[omega-9 fatty acids]] ([[oleic acid]]), and 6% [[omega-6 fatty acids]] ([[linoleic acid]]); the seeds contain 9% [[saturated fat]], including 5% as [[palmitic acid]].<ref name="nd">{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Nutrition facts for 100 g of flaxseeds |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/nut-and-seed-products/3163/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205075853/http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/nut-and-seed-products/3163/2 |archive-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=Conde Nast for USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-21}}</ref><ref name="usda">{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Full Report (All Nutrients): 12220, Seeds, flaxseed per 100 g |url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3745?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=&sort=&qlookup=&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920222846/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3745?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=&sort=&qlookup=&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby= |archive-date=20 September 2014 |publisher=USDA National Nutrient Database version SR-27}}</ref> Flax seed oil contains 53% 18:3 omega-3 fatty acids (mostly ALA) and 13% 18:2 omega-6 fatty acids.<ref name=nd/>

=====Health research=====
A [[meta-analysis]] showed that consumption of more than 30&nbsp;g of flax-seed daily for more than 12&nbsp;weeks reduced body weight, [[body mass index]] (BMI), and waist circumference for persons with a BMI greater than 27.<ref name="pmid28635182">{{Cite journal |last1=Mohammadi-Sartang |first1=M. |last2=Mazloom |first2=Z. |last3=Raeisi-Dehkordi |first3=H. |last4=Barati-Boldaji |first4=R. |last5=Bellissimo |first5=N. |last6=Totosy de Zepetnek |first6=J. O. |date=September 2017 |title=The effect of flaxseed supplementation on body weight and body composition: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 45 randomized placebo-controlled trials: Flaxseed and body composition |journal=Obesity Reviews |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=1096–1107 |doi=10.1111/obr.12550 |pmid=28635182 |s2cid=5587045}}</ref> Another meta-analysis showed that consumption of flax seeds for more than 12&nbsp;weeks produced small reductions in [[Systole|systolic blood pressure]] and [[Diastole|diastolic blood pressure]].<ref name="pmid25740909">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Khalesi S, Irwin C, Schubert M |year=2015 |title=Flaxseed consumption may reduce blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials |journal=[[Journal of Nutrition]] |volume=145 |issue=4 |pages=758–65 |doi=10.3945/jn.114.205302 |pmid=25740909 |doi-access=free|hdl=10072/128716 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A third showed that consuming flax seed or its derivatives may reduce total and [[LDL-cholesterol]] in the blood, with greater benefits in women and people with high [[cholesterol]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=A |last2=Yu |first2=D |last3=Demark-Wahnefried |first3=W |last4=Franco |first4=OH |last5=Lin |first5=X |date=August 2009 |title=Meta-analysis of the effects of flaxseed interventions on blood lipids |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=288–97 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27469 |pmc=3361740 |pmid=19515737}}</ref> A fourth showed a small reduction in [[c-reactive protein]] (a marker of inflammation) only in persons with a body mass index greater than 30.<ref name="pmid26959052">{{Cite journal |last1=Ren |first1=Guan-Yu |last2=Chen |first2=Chun-Yang |last3=Chen |first3=Guo-Chong |last4=Chen |first4=Wei-Guo |last5=Pan |first5=An |last6=Pan |first6=Chen-Wei |last7=Zhang |first7=Yong-Hong |last8=Qin |first8=Li-Qiang |last9=Chen |first9=Li-Hua |date=4 March 2016 |title=Effect of Flaxseed Intervention on Inflammatory Marker C-Reactive Protein: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |journal=Nutrients |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=136 |doi=10.3390/nu8030136 |pmc=4808865 |pmid=26959052 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=====Linseed oil=====
{{excerpt|Linseed oil}}

=====Safety=====
Flax seed and its oil are [[generally recognized as safe]] for human consumption.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cheeseman MA |date=24 August 2009 |title=GRAS Petition by Flax Canada, Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000280 |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/Noticeinventory/ucm181935.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617234254/https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/Noticeinventory/ucm181935.htm |archive-date=17 June 2015 |access-date=1 June 2015 |publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration}}</ref> Like many common foods, flax contains small amounts of cyanogenic [[glycoside]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cunnane |first1=SC|last2=Ganguli |first2=S|last3=Menard |first3=C|last4=Liede |first4=AC|last5=Hamadeh |first5=MJ|last6=Chen |first6=ZY|last7=Wolever |first7=TM|last8=Jenkins |first8=DJ |year=1993 |title=High alpha-linolenic acid flaxseed (''Linum usitatissimum''): some nutritional properties in humans |journal=Br J Nutr |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=443–53 |doi=10.1079/bjn19930046 |pmid=8098222 |doi-access=free}}</ref> which is nontoxic when consumed in typical amounts.<ref name="efsa">{{cite journal | author=EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain| title=Evaluation of the health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in foods other than raw apricot kernels | journal=EFSA Journal|date=11 April 2019 | volume=17 | issue=4 | pages=e05662 | doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5662 | pmid=32626287 | pmc=7009189 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Typical concentrations (for example, 0.48% in a sample of defatted dehusked flax seed meal) can be removed by special processing.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Singh KK, Mridula D, Rehal J, Barnwal P |year=2011 |title=Flaxseed: a potential source of food, feed and fiber |journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=210–22 |doi=10.1080/10408390903537241 |pmid=21390942 |s2cid=21452408}}</ref>

====Fodder====
After crushing the seeds to extract linseed oil, the resultant linseed meal is a [[protein]]-rich [[Animal feed|feed]] for [[ruminant]]s, [[rabbit]]s, and fish.<ref name=Feedipedia/> It is also often used as feed for [[swine]] and [[poultry]], and has also been used in horse concentrate and [[dog food]].<ref name="Maddock1">{{Cite web |last1=Maddock |first1=Travis D. |last2=Anderson, Vernon L. |last3=Lardy, Greg P. |title=Using Flax in Livestock Diets |url=http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ansci/beef/as1283w.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222030813/http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ansci/beef/as1283w.htm |archive-date=22 February 2012 |publisher=North Dakota State University |pages=53–62}}</ref> The high omega-3 fatty acid ([[alpha-linolenic acid|ALA]]) content of linseed meal "softens" milk, eggs, and meat, which means it causes a higher [[unsaturated fat]] content and thus lowers its storage time.<ref name=Feedipedia/> The high omega-3 content also has a further disadvantage, because this fatty acid [[oxidise]]s and goes [[Rancidification|rancid]] quickly, which shortens the storage time. [[Linola]] was developed in Australia and introduced in the 1990s with less omega-3, specifically to serve as [[fodder]].<ref name="CRS" /><ref name="Dribnenkil1995">{{Cite journal |last=J. C. P. Dribnenkil and A. G. Green |year=1995 |title=Linola '947' low linolenic acid flax |journal=Canadian Journal of Plant Science |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=201–202 |doi=10.4141/cjps95-036 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Another disadvantage of the meal and seed is that it contains a [[vitamin B6]] ([[pyridoxine]]) antagonist, and may require this vitamin be supplemented, especially in [[chicken]]s, and furthermore linseeds contain 2–7% of [[mucilage]] (fibre), which may be beneficial in humans<ref name=Feedipedia/> and cattle,<ref name=Maddock1/> but cannot be digested by non-ruminants and can be detrimental to young animals, unless possibly treated with [[enzyme]]s.<ref name=Feedipedia/>

Linseed meal is added to [[Cattle feeding|cattle feed]] as a protein [[Dietary supplement|supplement]]. It can only be added at low percentages due to the high fat content, which is unhealthy for ruminants.<ref name=Maddock1/> Compared to oilseed meal from [[Brassicaceae|crucifers]] it measures as having lower nutrient values,<ref name=Feedipedia/> however, good results are obtained in cattle, perhaps due to the mucilage, which may aid in slowing digestion and thus allowing more time to absorb nutrients.<ref name=Feedipedia/><ref name=Maddock1/> One study found that feeding flax seeds may increase omega-3 content in [[beef]], while another found no differences. It might also act as a substitute for [[tallow]] in increasing [[marbled meat|marbling]].<ref name=Maddock1/><ref name="Maddock2">{{Cite journal |last1=Maddock |first1=T. D. |last2=Bauer |first2=M. L. |last3=Koch |first3=K. B. |last4=Anderson |first4=V. L. |last5=Maddock |first5=R. J. |last6=Barceló-Coblijn |first6=G. |last7=Murphy |first7=E. J. |last8=Lardy |first8=G. P. |date=1 June 2006 |title=Effect of processing flax in beef feedlot diets on performance, carcass characteristics, and trained sensory panel ratings1 |journal=Journal of Animal Science |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=1544–1551 |doi=10.2527/2006.8461544x |pmid=16699112}}</ref> In the US, flax-based feed for ruminants is often somewhat more expensive than other feeds on a nutrient basis.<ref name="Lardy2015">{{Cite report |url=https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/livestock/alternative-feeds-for-ruminants/as1182.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/livestock/alternative-feeds-for-ruminants/as1182.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Alternative feeds for ruminants |last1=Lardy |first1=Greg P. |last2=Anderson |first2=Vern L. |date=October 2015 |publisher=[[North Dakota State University]] Extension Service |pages=9, 20 |docket=AS1182 (Revised) |last3=Dahlen |first3=Carl |access-date=4 October 2019}}</ref> [[Sheep]] feeding on low quality [[forage]] are able to eat a large amount of linseed meal, up to 40% in one test, with positive consequences. It has been fed as a supplement to [[water buffaloes]] in India and provided a better diet than forage alone, but not as good as when substituted with [[soybean|soy]] meal. It is considered an inferior protein supplement for swine because of its fibre, vitamin antagonist, high omega-3 content, and its low lysine content, and can only be used in small amounts in the feed. Although it may increase the omega-3 content in eggs and meat, it is also an inferior and potentially toxic feed for poultry, although it can be used in small amounts. The meal is an adequate and traditional source of protein for rabbits at 8–10%. Its use in fish feeds is limited.<ref name=Feedipedia/>

Raw, immature linseeds contain an amount of [[cyanogenic]] compounds and can be dangerous for [[monogastric]] animals, like horses and rabbits. Boiling removes the danger. This is not an issue in meal cake due to the processing temperature during oil extraction.<ref name=Feedipedia/><ref name=Lardy2015/>

Flax [[straw]] left over from the harvesting of oilseed is not very nutritious; it is tough and indigestible and is not recommended for use as ruminant fodder, although it may be used as bedding or [[baler|baled]] as [[windbreak]]s.<ref name=Lardy2015/>

==== Warfare ====
A [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Biological warfare|biowarfare]] [[military operation plan]] developed from 1942 to 1944 during [[World War II]] was planned to disseminate linseed with anthrax spores to be eaten by livestock, and eventually consumed by the human population.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burke |first=Myles |date=22 April 2024 |title=Britain's mysterious WW2 'island of death' |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20240419-britains-mysterious-ww2-island-of-death? |access-date=17 February 2025 |website=BBC Culture}}</ref> This would have led to widespread death, but the plan was eventually abandoned for Operation Overlord.