Editing French protectorate in Morocco (section)

==Opposition to French control==

===Zaian War===
{{Main|Zaian War|Mouha ou Hammou Zayani}}
The [[Zaian confederation]] of [[Berber people|Berber]] tribes in [[Morocco]] fought a war of opposition against the French between 1914 and 1921. [[List of French residents-general in Morocco|Resident-General]] [[Louis-Hubert Lyautey]] sought to extend French influence eastwards through the [[Middle Atlas]] mountains towards [[French Algeria]]. This was opposed by the Zaians, led by [[Mouha ou Hammou Zayani]]. The war began well for the French, who quickly took the key towns of [[Taza]] and [[Khénifra]]. Despite the loss of their base at Khénifra, the Zaians inflicted heavy losses on the French.

With the outbreak of the First World War, France withdrew troops for service in Europe, and they lost more than 600 in the [[Battle of El Herri]]. Over the following four years, the French retained most of their territory despite the [[Central Powers]]' intelligence and financial support to the Zaian Confederation and continual raids and skirmishes reducing scarce French manpower.

After [[Armistice with Germany]] in November 1918, significant forces of tribesmen remained opposed to French rule. The French resumed their offensive in the Khénifra area in 1920, establishing a series of [[blockhouse]]s to limit the Zaians' freedom of movement. They conducted negotiations with Hammou's sons, persuading three of them, along with many of their followers, to submit to the French rule. A split in the Zaian Confederation between those who supported submission and those still opposed led to infighting and the death of Hammou in Spring 1921. The French responded with a strong, three-pronged attack into the Middle Atlas that pacified the area. Some tribesmen, led by [[Moha ou Said]], fled to the High Atlas and continued a guerrilla war against the French well into the 1930s.

===Rif War===
{{Main|Rif War|Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi}}
[[File:Flag of the Republic of the Rif.svg|thumb|left|Flag of the [[Rif Republic]] (1921–1926)]]
[[Yusef of Morocco|Sultan Yusef]]'s reign, which lasted from 1912 to 1927, was turbulent and marked with frequent uprisings against Spain and France. The most serious of these was a Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains, led by [[Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi|Abd el-Krim]], who managed to establish a [[Republic of the Rif|republic]] in the Rif. Though this rebellion began in the Spanish-controlled area in the north, it reached the French-controlled area. A coalition of France and Spain finally defeated the rebels in 1925. To ensure their own safety, the French moved the court from Fez to [[Rabat]], which has served as the capital ever since.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqeOMjr9kqYC&pg=PA125|title=The French Foreign Legion: An Illustrated History|last=Lepage|first=Jean-Denis G. G.|date=27 November 2007|publisher=McFarland|isbn=9780786462537|pages=125|language=en}}</ref>

===Nationalist parties===
Amid the backlash against the [[Berber Dahir|Berber Decree]] of 16 May 1930, crowds gathered in protest and a national network was established to resist the legislation. Dr. Susan Gilson Miller cites this as the "seedbed out of which the embryonic nationalist movement emerged."<ref>{{Cite book|title=A history of modern Morocco|last=Miller, Susan Gilson.|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139624695|location=New York|pages=129|oclc=855022840}}</ref> In December 1934, a small group of nationalists, members of the newly formed Moroccan Action Committee ({{Lang|ar|كتلة العمل الوطني}}, {{Lang|fr|Comité d’Action Marocaine}} – CAM), proposed a [[Moroccan Plan of Reforms|Plan of Reforms]] ({{Lang|ar|برنامج الإصلاحات المغربية}}) that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the [[Treaty of Fez|Treaty of Fes]], admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils. The moderate tactics used by the CAM to obtain consideration of reform included petitions, newspaper editorials, and personal appeals to French.

===World War II===
{{Main|Morocco in World War II}}
During World War II, the badly divided nationalist movement became more cohesive, and informed Moroccans dared to consider the real possibility of political change in the post-war era. The [[Moroccan Nationalist Movement]] ({{Lang|ar|الحركة الوطنية المغربية}}) was emboldened by overtures made by [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and the [[United States]] during the [[Casablanca Conference|1943 Anfa Conference]] during [[World War II]], expressing support for Moroccan independence after the war. Nationalist political parties based their arguments for Moroccan independence on such [[World War II]] declarations as the [[Atlantic Charter]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKy_YzYeIjoC&pg=PA268|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|last=Africa|first=Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of|date=1990|publisher=Currey|isbn=9780852550977|pages=268|language=en}}</ref>

However, the nationalists were disappointed in their belief that the Allied victory in Morocco would pave the way for independence. In January 1944, the [[Istiqlal Party]], which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released a [[Proclamation of Independence of Morocco|manifesto demanding full independence]], national reunification, and a democratic constitution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.istiqlal.ma/Manifeste-de-l-independance-du-11-Janvier-1944_a64.html|title=Manifeste de l'indépendance du 11 Janvier 1944|last=الاستقلال|first=Istiqlal Maroc Parti-حزب|website=Portail du Parti de l'Istiqlal Maroc|language=fr|access-date=12 January 2020|archive-date=1 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001185348/https://www.istiqlal.ma/Manifeste-de-l-independance-du-11-Janvier-1944_a64.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sultan [[Mohammed V of Morocco|Muhammad V]] approved the manifesto before its submission to the French resident general [[Gabriel Puaux]], who answered that no basic change in the protectorate status was being considered.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IFUBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|title=Emergence of Nationalist Politics in Morocco: The Rise of the Independence Party and the Struggle Against Colonialism After World War II|last=Zisenwine|first=Daniel|date=30 September 2010|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9780857718532|pages=39|language=en}}</ref>

===Struggle for independence===
The innovative fact about Moroccan nationalists is that they globalized the Moroccan question through transnational activism.<ref name="Stenner">{{Cite book |last=Stenner |first=David |date=2019 |title=Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State |location=Stanford, Calif. |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1503608993 |oclc=1048942756}}</ref>{{Rp|p=15}} This way they created a vibrant and wide global coalition of supporters who advocated their cause. This way they also managed to make their concerns global ones.<ref name="Stenner"/>{{Rp|p=15}} Among their active international supporters was Robert E. Rodes who fought actively in the US Congress for gaining support for the Moroccan cause.<ref name="Stenner"/>{{Rp|pp=31–34}}

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, with political and nonviolent efforts proving futile, the Moroccan struggle for independence became increasingly violent, with massacres, bombings, and riots, particularly in the urban and industrial center, [[Casablanca]].

====Tangier Speech and Casablanca Tirailleurs Massacre====
{{Main|Tangier Speech|Massacre of April 7, 1947}}
[[File:ضربة_ساليغان_في_الصحافة_الفرنسية.png|thumb|The Massacre of April 7, 1947 in Casablanca as reported in ''[[France-Soir]]'' on April 9.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1947-04-09 |title=France-soir |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k4746453z |access-date=2023-01-31 |website=Gallica |language=EN}}</ref>]]

In 1947, Sultan [[Mohammed V of Morocco|Muhammad V]] planned to deliver [[Tangier Speech|a speech]] in what was then the [[Tangier International Zone]] to appeal for his country's independence from colonialism and for its territorial unity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hespress.com/histoire/85477.html|title=زيارة محمد الخامس لطنجة.. أغضبت{{lro}} {{popdf}}فرنسا وأشعلت{{lro}} {{popdf}}المقاومة|website=Hespress|date=31 July 2013|language=ar|access-date=29 August 2019}}</ref>

In the days leading up to the sultan's speech, French colonial forces in [[Casablanca]], specifically [[Senegalese Tirailleurs|Senegalese ''Tirailleurs'']] serving the [[French colonial empire]], carried out a massacre of working class Moroccans. The massacre lasted for about 24 hours from 7–8 April 1947, as the ''tirailleurs'' fired randomly into residential buildings in working-class neighborhoods, killing 180 Moroccan civilians. The conflict was instigated in an attempt to sabotage the Sultan's journey to Tangier, though after having returned to Casablanca to comfort the families of the victims, the Sultan then proceeded to Tangier to deliver the historic speech, in the garden of the [[Mendoubia]] palace, on 9 April.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atlasinfo.fr/Evenements-du-7-avril-1947-a-Casablanca-un-tournant-decisif-dans-la-lutte-pour-la-liberte-et-l-independance_a70631.html|title=Evènements du 7 avril 1947 à Casablanca, un tournant décisif dans la lutte pour la liberté et l'indépendance|last=Atlasinfo|website=Atlasinfo.fr: l'essentiel de l'actualité de la France et du Maghreb|date=6 April 2016|language=fr|access-date=16 March 2019}} {{verify source |date=September 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/913075180 by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite located at Special:Permalink/913050120 cite #2 – verify the cite is accurate and delete this template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Maghraoui |editor-first=Driss |date=2013 |title=Revisiting the Colonial Past in Morocco |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=151 |isbn=9780415638470 |oclc=793224528}}<!-- https://www.google.com/books/edition/Revisiting_the_Colonial_Past_in_Morocco/wohfaYvYYiIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=speech%20sultan -->{{verify source |date=September 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/913075180 by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite located at Special:Permalink/913050120 cite #3 – verify the cite is accurate and delete this template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref>

====Murder of Farhat Hached====
{{Main|Casablanca Uprisings of 1952}}

The assassination of the Tunisian labor unionist [[Farhat Hached]] by ''[[La Main Rouge]]''—the clandestine militant wing of [[Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre-Espionnage|French intelligence]]—sparked protests in cities around the world and riots in Casablanca from 7–8 December 1952.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yabiladi.com/articles/details/49006/decembre-1952-quand-casablancais-sont.html|title=7–8 décembre 1952: Quand les Casablancais se sont soulevés contre l'assassinat de Ferhat Hached|last=Yabiladi.com|website=www.yabiladi.com|language=fr|access-date=16 March 2019}} {{verify source |date=September 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/913075180 by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite located at Special:Permalink/913050268 cite #18 – verify the cite is accurate and delete this template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref> Approximately 100 people were killed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/middle-eastnorth-africapersian-gulf-region/francemorocco-1930-1956/|title=6. French Morocco (1912–1956)|website=uca.edu|language=en-US|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> In the aftermath of the riots, French authorities arrested [[Abbas Messaadi]], who would eventually escape, found the [[Moroccan Army of Liberation|Moroccan Liberation Army]], and join the armed resistance in the Rif.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zamane.ma/fr/lassassinat-de-messaadi/|title=L'assassinat de Messaâdi|date=12 November 2012|website=Zamane|language=fr-FR|access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref>

===Revolution of the King and the People===
{{Main|Revolution of the King and the People}}

==== Glaoui's attempted coup ====
In 1953, [[Thami El Glaoui]] attempted to orchestrate a coup against Sultan [[Mohammed V of Morocco|Muhammad V]] with the support of the French protectorate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=البطيوي |first=توفيق |title=التهامي الكلاوي.. صفحة سوداء في تاريخ المغرب الحديث |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/blogs/2018/5/8/%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%aa%d9%87%d8%a7%d9%85%d9%8a-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%83%d9%84%d8%a7%d9%88%d9%8a-%d8%b5%d9%81%d8%ad%d8%a9-%d8%b3%d9%88%d8%af%d8%a7%d8%a1-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae |access-date=2022-09-28 |website=www.aljazeera.net |language=ar |quote=في التاسع عشر من ماي 1953 أصدر الباشا الكلاوي بيانا معلنا فيه صداقته وإخلاصه للحماية الفرنسية مطالبا إياها بإبعاد السلطان محمد الخامس}}</ref> The [[1953 Oujda revolt]] broke out ten days after his "electoral" campaign passed through the city.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news |date=1954-11-30 |title=Quatre-vingt-seize Marocains poursuivis pour participation à la « tuerie d'Oujda », qui fit trente morts le 16 août 1953, passent en jugement |language=fr |work=Le Monde.fr |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1954/11/30/quatre-vingt-seize-marocains-poursuivis-pour-participation-a-la-tuerie-qui-fit-le-16-aout-1953-trente-morts-a-oujda-passent-en-jugement_2026822_1819218.html |access-date=2022-09-28}}</ref>

====Exile of Sultan Muhammad====
The general sympathy of the sultan for the nationalists had become evident by the end of the war, although he still hoped to see complete independence achieved gradually. By contrast, the residency, supported by French economic interests and vigorously backed by most of the colonists, adamantly refused to consider even reforms short of independence. Official intransigence contributed to increased animosity between the nationalists and the colonists and gradually widened the split between the sultan and the resident general.

Muhammad V and his family were transferred to [[Madagascar]] in January 1954. His replacement by the unpopular [[Mohammed Ben Aarafa]], whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the French protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6HKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA558|title=Heads of States and Governments Since 1945|last=Lentz|first=Harris M.|date=4 February 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134264902|pages=558|language=en}}</ref> By 1955, Ben Aarafa was pressured to abdicate. Consequently, Ben Aarafa fled to Tangier where he formally abdicated.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=La9hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=North Africa (RLE Economy of the Middle East): Contemporary Politics and Economic Development|last1=Lawless|first1=Richard I.|last2=Findlay|first2=Allan|date=15 May 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317592983|pages=67|language=en}}</ref>

The French executed 6 Moroccan nationalists in Casablanca on 4 January 1955.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/middle-eastnorth-africapersian-gulf-region/francemorocco-1930-1956/|title=6. French Morocco (1912–1956)|website=uca.edu|language=en-US|access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref> The aggressions between the colonists and the nationalists increased from 19 August – 5 November 1955, and approximately 1,000 people died<ref name=":5" />

Facing a united Moroccan demand for the sultan’s return, a rising violence in Morocco, as well as the deteriorating situation in Algeria, Muhammad V returned from exile on 16 November 1955, and declared independence on 18 November 1955. In February 1956 he successfully negotiated with France to enforce the independence of Morocco, and in 1957 took the title of King.{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}

====1956 independence====
In late 1955, Muhammad V successfully negotiated the gradual restoration of Moroccan independence within a framework of French-Moroccan interdependence. Further negotiations for full independence culminated in the French-Moroccan Agreement signed in [[Paris]] on 2 March 1956.<ref>{{cite web|title=Déclaration commune|url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/traites/affichetraite.do?accord=TRA19560034|date=2 March 1956|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Development (France)]]|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=19 March 1956|title=French-Moroccan Declaration|url=https://archive.org/stream/departmentofstat341956unit_0#page/466/mode/1up|journal=Department of State Bulletin|publisher=Department of State|volume=XXXIV|issue=873|pages=466{{endash}}467}} (unofficial translation)</ref>

However, provisions in the ''protocole annexe'' of the March agreement as well the Cooperation Agreement of 28 May 1956, which stipulated among other things that each country should refrain from adopting policies that were incompatible with the interests of the other, constituted an impediment to full independence,<ref>Essemlali p. 2</ref> as was the right of France to maintain troops in Morocco during a transitional period of unspecified duration. The outspoken support of the Moroccans and Muhammad V for Algerian independence brought about the rapid collapse of these agreements and the worsening of Franco-Moroccan relations, especially after the Meknès riots of 23–28 November 1956 in the course of which several hundred Moroccans and more than 50 Europeans were killed.<ref>Essemlali p. 13, 19-21</ref> From a high of 350,000 in 1955, the number of European settlers dropped to 150,549 in 1963, and 25,343 in 1990.<ref>Pellegrini p. 5, 6.</ref> French-ownership of agricultural land was gradually eliminated following the nationalization decrees of 1959, 1963 and 1973.<ref>Pellegrini p. 8.</ref> Following unrelenting diplomatic pressure by Morocco, the last French troops were finally withdrawn 1 November 1961.<ref>Aouchar p. 22.</ref>

The internationalized city of [[Tangier]] was reintegrated with the signing of the [[Tangier Protocol]] on 29 October 1956.<ref>{{cite web|title=Final Declaration of the International Conference in Tangier and annexed Protocol. Signed at Tangier, on 29 October 1956 [1957] UNTSer 130; 263 UNTS 165 |url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/treaties/UNTSer/1957/130.html|date=1956}}</ref> The abolition of the Spanish protectorate and the recognition of Moroccan independence by Spain were negotiated separately and made final in the Joint Declaration of 7 April 1956.<ref>{{cite journal |date=23 April 1956|title=Spanish-Moroccan Declaration|url=https://archive.org/stream/departmentofstat341956unit_0#page/667/mode/1up|journal=Department of State Bulletin|publisher=Department of State|volume=XXXIV|issue=878|pages=667{{endash}}668}} (unofficial translation)</ref> Through these agreements with Spain in 1956 and 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored, though attempts to claim other Spanish possessions through [[Ifni War|military action]] were less successful.

In the months that followed independence, Muhammad V proceeded to build a modern governmental structure under a [[constitutional monarchy]] in which the sultan would exercise an active political role. He acted cautiously, having no intention of permitting more radical elements in the nationalist movement to overthrow the established order. He was also intent on preventing the Istiqlal Party from consolidating its control and establishing a [[one-party state]]. In August 1957, Muhammad V assumed the title of king.