Editing Habitat fragmentation (section)

=== Effect on animal behaviours===
Although the way habitat fragmentation affects the genetics and extinction rates of species has been heavily studied, fragmentation has also been shown to affect species' behaviours and cultures as well. This is important because social interactions can determine and have an effect on a species' fitness and survival. Habitat fragmentation alters the resources available and the structure of habitats, as a result, alters the behaviours of species and the dynamics between differing species. Behaviours affected can be within a species such as reproduction, mating, foraging, species dispersal, communication and movement patterns or can be behaviours between species such as predator-prey relationships.<ref name="Banks2007">{{cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Sam C |last2=Piggott |first2=Maxine P |last3=Stow |first3=Adam J |last4=Taylor |first4=Andrea C |title=Sex and sociality in a disconnected world: a review of the impacts of habitat fragmentation on animal social interactions |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=2007 |volume=85 |issue=10 |pages=1065–1079 |doi=10.1139/Z07-094}}</ref> In addition, when animals happen to venture into unknown areas in between fragmented forests or landscapes, they can supposedly come into contact with humans which puts them at a great risk and further decreases their chances of survival.<ref name="Haddad2015">{{Cite journal|last1=Haddad|first1=Nick M.|last2=Brudvig|first2=Lars A.|last3=Clobert|first3=Jean|last4=Davies|first4=Kendi F.|last5=Gonzalez|first5=Andrew|last6=Holt|first6=Robert D.|last7=Lovejoy|first7=Thomas E.|last8=Sexton|first8=Joseph O.|last9=Austin|first9=Mike P.|last10=Collins|first10=Cathy D.|last11=Cook|first11=William M.|date=2015-03-01|title=Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=e1500052|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500052|pmid=26601154|pmc=4643828|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0052H|issn=2375-2548}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

==== Predation behaviours ====
Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities has been shown to greatly affect the predator-prey dynamics of many species by altering the number of species and the members of those species.<ref name="Banks2007" /> This affects the natural predator-prey relationships between animals in a given community <ref name="Banks2007" /> and forces them to alter their behaviours and interactions, therefore resetting the so-called "behavioral space race".<ref name="Shneider2001">{{cite journal |last1=Shneider |first1=Michael F |title=Habitat loss, fragmentation and predator impact: spatial implications for prey conservation |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2001 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=720–735|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00642.x|bibcode=2001JApEc..38..720S |doi-access=free }}</ref> The way in which fragmentation changes and re-shapes these interactions can occur in many different forms. Most prey species have patches of land that are a refuge from their predators, allowing them the safety to reproduce and raise their young. Human introduced structures such as roads and pipelines alter these areas by facilitating predator activity in these refuges, increasing predator-prey overlap.<ref name="Shneider2001" /> The opposite could also occur in the favour of prey, increasing prey refuge and subsequently decreasing predation rates. Fragmentation may also increase predator abundance or predator efficiency and therefore increase predation rates in this manner.<ref name="Shneider2001" /> Several other factors can also increase or decrease the extent to which the shifting predator-prey dynamics affect certain species, including how diverse a predators diet is and how flexible habitat requirements are for predators and prey.<ref name="Banks2007" /> Depending on which species are affected and these other factors, fragmentation and its effects on predator-prey dynamics may contribute to species extinction.<ref name="Banks2007" /> In response to these new environmental pressures, new adaptive behaviours may be developed. Prey species may adapt to increased risk of predation with strategies such as altering mating tactics or changing behaviours and activities related to food and foraging.<ref name="Banks2007" />

===== Boreal woodland caribous =====
In the boreal woodland caribous of British Columbia, the effects of fragmentation are demonstrated. The species refuge area is peatland bog which has been interrupted by linear features such as roads and pipelines.<ref name="DeMars2017">{{cite journal |last1=DeMars |first1=Craig A |last2=Boutin |first2=Stan |title=Nowhere to hide: Effects of linear features on predator-prey dynamics in a large mammal system |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |date=September 4, 2017 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1111/1365-2656.12760|pmid=28940254 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These features have allowed their natural predators, the wolf, and the black bear to more efficiently travel over landscapes and between patches of land.<ref name="DeMars2017" /> Since their predators can more easily access the caribous' refuge, the females of the species attempt to avoid the area, affecting their reproductive behaviours and offspring produced.<ref name="DeMars2017" />

==== Communication behaviours ====
Fragmentation affecting the communication behaviours of birds has been well studied in Dupont's Lark. The Larks primarily reside in regions of Spain and are a small passerine bird which uses songs as a means of cultural transmission between members of the species.<ref name="DeMars2017" /> The Larks have two distinct vocalizations, the song, and the territorial call. The territorial call is used by males to defend and signal territory from other male Larks and is shared between neighbouring territories when males respond to a rivals song.<ref name="Laiolo2005">{{cite journal |last1=Laiolo |first1=Paola |last2=Tella |first2=José L |title=Habitat fragmentation affects culture transmission: patterns of song matching in Dupont's lark |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2005 |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1183–1193 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01093.x|bibcode=2005JApEc..42.1183L |hdl=10261/57878 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Occasionally it is used as a threat signal to signify an impending attack on territory.<ref name="Laiolo2007">{{cite journal |last1=Laiolo |first1=Paola |last2=Tella |first2=José L |title=Erosion of animal cultures in fragmented landscapes |journal= Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|date=2007 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=68–72 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[68:eoacif]2.0.co;2}}</ref> A large song repertoire can enhance a male's ability to survive and reproduce as he has a greater ability to defend his territory from other males, and a larger number of males in the species means a larger variety of songs being transmitted.<ref name="Laiolo2005" /> Fragmentation of the Dupont's Lark territory from agriculture, forestry and urbanization appears to have a large effect on their communication structures.<ref name="Laiolo2007" /> Males only perceive territories of a certain distance to be rivals and so isolation of territory from others due to fragmentation leads to a decrease in territorial calls as the males no longer have any reason to use it or have any songs to match.<ref name="Laiolo2007" />

[[Human]]s have also brought on varying implications into ecosystems which in turn affect animal behaviour and responses generated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=B. B. M.|last2=Candolin|first2=U.|date=2015-05-01|title=Behavioral responses to changing environments|journal=Behavioral Ecology|language=en|volume=26|issue=3|pages=665–673|doi=10.1093/beheco/aru183|issn=1045-2249|doi-access=free|hdl=10.1093/beheco/aru183|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Although there are some species which are able to survive these kinds of harsh conditions, such as, cutting down wood in the forests for [[Pulp and paper industry|pulp and paper]] industries, there are animals which can survive this change but some that cannot. An example includes, varying [[aquatic insect]]s are able to identify appropriate ponds to lay their eggs with the aid of [[Polarized light pollution|polarized light]] to guide them, however, due to [[ecosystem]] modifications caused by humans they are led onto artificial structures which emit artificial light which are induced by dry asphalt dry roads for an example.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221958968|title=polarized Light Pollution: a new kind of ecological photopollution|website=Research Gate}}</ref>