Editing Management (section)

===Early writing===
The field of management originated in ancient China,<ref name=" Ewan Ferlie p.30">Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt (2005) ''The Oxford Handbook of Public Management'', p.30.</ref> including possibly the first highly centralized [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an [[meritocracy|administration based on merit]] through [[Imperial examination|testing]].<ref name="APHq">Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. ''One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed' in the imperial bureaucracy of China.''
*{{cite book|last1=Tan|first1=Chung|first2=Yinzheng|last2=Geng|title=India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations|year=2005|publisher=University of Michigan Press|page=128|quote=China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy"}}
*{{cite book|last=Konner|first=Melvin|title=Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews|url=https://archive.org/details/unsettledanthrop00konn|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Viking Compass|page=[https://archive.org/details/unsettledanthrop00konn/page/217 217]|isbn=9780670032440|quote=China is the world's oldest meritocracy}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Tucker|first1=Mary Evelyn|year=2009|title=Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia|journal=Ecology and the Environment: Perspectives from the Humanities|page=51|quote=To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics}}</ref> Some theorists have cited [[:Category: Ancient military books|ancient military texts]] as providing lessons for civilian managers. For example, Chinese general [[Sun Tzu]] in his 6th-century BC work ''[[The Art of War]]'' recommends{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p19">{{cite book
 | last = Gomez-Mejia
 | first = Luis R.
 |author2=David B. Balkin |author3=Robert L. Cardy
 | title = Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition
 | publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]]
 | year = 2008
 | location = New York
 | page = 19
 | isbn = 978-0-07-302743-2}}</ref>{{qn|date=July 2018}} The writings of influential [[Chinese Legalist]] philosopher [[Shen Buhai]] may be considered{{by whom|date=August 2017}} to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration.<ref>Creel, 1974 pp. 4–5 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.</ref><ref>Creel, What Is Taoism?, 94
* Creel, 1974 p.4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.
* Creel 1964: 155–6
* Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
* Paul R. Goldin, p.16 Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_</ref> American philosopher [[Herrlee G. Creel]] and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century.<ref>Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt 2005 p.30, ''The Oxford Handbook of Public Management''</ref><ref>Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. "Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration", ''Journal of Chinese Philosophy'' Volume 1.</ref><ref>Creel, "The Origins of Statecraft in China, I", ''The Western Chou Empire'', Chicago, pp.9–27</ref><ref>Otto B. Van der Sprenkel, "Max Weber on China", ''History and Theory'' '''3''' (1964), 357.</ref>  Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in [[Guangzhou]], argued in his ''Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China'' (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution [[meritocratic]].<ref name="Bodde"/> Influenced by the ancient Chinese [[imperial examination]], the [[Northcote–Trevelyan Report]] of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase".<ref>[http://www.civilservant.org.uk/northcotetrevelyan.pdf Full text of the Northcote-Trevelyan Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222072511/http://www.civilservant.org.uk/northcotetrevelyan.pdf |date=22 December 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Bodde">{{cite web|last=Bodde|first=Derke|title=China: A Teaching Workbook|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_ideas.htm|publisher=Columbia University}}</ref> This led to implementation of [[Her Majesty's Civil Service]] as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.<ref>{{cite news|last=Walker|first=David|title=Fair game|work=The Guardian|date=2003-07-09|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/jul/09/publicsector.guardiansocietysupplement|access-date =2003-07-09|location=London, UK}}</ref> Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system. [[Voltaire]] claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and [[François Quesnay]] advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mark W. Huddleston |last2=William W. Boyer |title=The Higher Civil Service in the United States: Quest for Reform |date=1996 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Pre |isbn=0822974738 |page=15}}</ref> French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.<ref name=rung>{{cite book |last1=Rung |first1=Margaret C. |title=Servants of the State: Managing Diversity & Democracy in the Federal Workforce, 1933-1953 |date=2002 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=0820323624 |pages=8,200–201 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ucVgkbmqynUC}}</ref>

Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced "[[mirrors for princes]]" books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern. [[Plato]] described job specialization in 350 BC, and [[Alfarabi]] listed several leadership traits in AD 900.<ref>Griffin, Ricky W. CUSTOM Management: Principles and Practices, International Edition, 11th Edition. Cengage Learning UK, 08/2014</ref> Other examples include the Indian ''[[Arthashastra]]'' by [[Chanakya]] (written around 300 BC), and ''[[The Prince]]'' by Italian author
[[Niccolò Machiavelli]] ({{circa|1515}}).<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20" />

{{further|Mirrors for princes}}

Written in 1776 by [[Adam Smith]], a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Ethics|moral philosopher]], ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' discussed efficient organization of work through [[division of labour]].<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20">{{cite book
 | last = Gomez-Mejia
 | first = Luis R.
 |author2=David B. Balkin |author3=Robert L. Cardy
 | title = Management: People, Performance, Change
 | edition = 3
 | publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]]
 | year = 2008
 | location = New York
 | page = 20
 | isbn = 978-0-07-302743-2
}}
</ref>
Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of [[pin (device)|pins]]. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in the manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled the production of 48,000 pins per day.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20" />{{qn|date=August 2017}}