Editing Old Japanese (section)

=== Nominals ===
==== Pronouns ====
Many Old Japanese pronouns had both a short form and a longer form with attached {{tlit|ojp|-re}} of uncertain etymology.
If the pronoun occurred in isolation, the longer form was used.
The short form was used with genitive particles or in nominal compounds, but in other situations either form was possible.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|pp=136–137}}

[[Personal pronouns]] were distinguished by taking the [[genitive case|genitive]] marker {{tlit|ojp|ga}}, in contrast to the marker {{tlit|ojp|no<sub>2</sub>}} used with demonstratives and nouns.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=138}}
* The first-[[grammatical person|person]] pronouns were {{tlit|ojp|a(re)}} and {{tlit|ojp|wa(re)}}, were used for the singular and plural respectively, though with some overlap. The {{tlit|ojp|wa-}} forms were also used [[reflexive pronoun|reflexively]], which suggests that {{tlit|ojp|wa}} was originally an [[indefinite pronoun]] and gradually replaced {{tlit|ojp|a}}.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=138}}
* The second-person pronoun was {{tlit|ojp|na(re)}}.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=136}}
* The third-person pronoun {{tlit|ojp|si}} was much less commonly used than the non-proximal demonstrative {{tlit|ojp|so<sub>2</sub>}} from which it was derived.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|pp=138–139}}
* There were also an [[interrogative pronoun]] {{tlit|ojp|ta(re)}} and a reflexive pronoun {{tlit|ojp|ono<sub>2</sub>}}.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=136}}

[[Demonstrative]]s often distinguished proximal (to the speaker) and non-proximal forms marked with {{tlit|ojp|ko<sub>2</sub>-}} and {{tlit|ojp|so<sub>2</sub>-}} respectively.
Many forms had corresponding interrogative forms {{tlit|ojp|i(du)-}}.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|pp=139–140}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Old Japanese demonstratives{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=141}}
|-
! !! Proximal !! Non-proximal !! Interrogative
|-
! Nominal
| {{tlit|ojp|ko<sub>2</sub>(re)}} || {{tlit|ojp|so<sub>2</sub>}} || {{tlit|ojp|idu(re)}}
|-
! Location
| {{tlit|ojp|ko<sub>2</sub>ko<sub>2</sub>}} || {{tlit|ojp|so<sub>2</sub>ko<sub>2</sub>}} || {{tlit|ojp|iduku}}
|-
! Direction
| {{tlit|ojp|ko<sub>2</sub>ti}} || {{tlit|ojp|so<sub>2</sub>ti}} || {{tlit|ojp|iduti}}
|-
! Degree
| {{tlit|ojp|ko<sub>2</sub>kV-}} || {{tlit|ojp|so<sub>2</sub>kV-}} || {{tlit|ojp|iku-}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | Manner
| {{tlit|ojp|ka}} || {{tlit|ojp|sate}} || –
|-
| {{tlit|ojp|kaku}} || {{tlit|ojp|sika}} || {{tlit|ojp|ika}}
|-
! Time
| – || – || {{tlit|ojp|itu}}
|}

In Early Middle Japanese, the non-proximal {{tlit|ojp|so-}} forms were reinterpreted as hearer-based (medial), and the speaker-based forms were divided into proximal {{tlit|ojp|ko-}} forms and distal {{tlit|ojp|ka-}}/{{tlit|ojp|a-}} forms, yielding the three-way distinction that is still found in Modern Japanese.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|pp=140, 246–247}}

==== Numerals ====
In later texts, such as the ''Man'yōshū'', numerals were sometimes written using Chinese logographs, which give no indication of pronunciation.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=285}}
The following numerals are attested phonographically:{{sfn|Vovin|2020|pp=328–352}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Phonographically attested Old Japanese cardinal numerals
|-
| 1 {{tlit|ojp|pi<sub>1</sub>to<sub>2</sub>}}
| 10 {{tlit|ojp|to<sub>2</sub>wo}}
| 100 {{tlit|ojp|mo<sub>1</sub>mo<sub>1</sub>}}
| 1000 {{tlit|ojp|ti}}
| 10,000 {{tlit|ojp|yo<sub>2</sub>ro<sub>2</sub>du}}
|-
| 2 {{tlit|ojp|puta}}
| 20 {{tlit|ojp|pata}}
|
|
|
|-
| 3 {{tlit|ojp|mi<sub>1</sub>}}
| 30 {{tlit|ojp|mi<sub>1</sub>so<sub>1</sub>}}
|
|
|
|-
| 4 {{tlit|ojp|yo<sub>2</sub>}}
| 40 {{tlit|ojp|yo<sub>2</sub>so<sub>1</sub>}}
|
|
|
|-
| 5 {{tlit|ojp|itu}}
| 50 ({{tlit|ojp|iso<sub>1</sub>}})
| 500 {{tlit|ojp|ipo}}
|
|
|-
| 6 {{tlit|ojp|mu}}
|
|
|
|
|-
| 7 {{tlit|ojp|nana}}
| 70 ({{tlit|ojp|nanaso<sub>1</sub>}})
|
|
|
|-
| 8 {{tlit|ojp|ya}}
| 80 {{tlit|ojp|yaso<sub>1</sub>}}
| 800 {{tlit|ojp|yapo}}
|
|
|-
| 9 {{tlit|ojp|ko<sub>2</sub>ko<sub>2</sub>no}}
|
|
|
|
|}

The forms for 50 and 70 are known only from Heian texts.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|pp=344–345}}

There is a single example of a phonographically recorded compound number, in ''Bussokuseki'' 2:{{sfn|Vovin|2020|p=344}}

{{interlinear|lang=ojp|indent=3
|mi<sub>1</sub>so-ti amar-i puta-tu no<sub>2</sub> katati
|thirty-CL exceed-INF two-CL GEN mark
|'thirty-two marks'}}

This example uses the [[classifier (linguistics)|classifier]]s {{tlit|ojp|-ti}} (used with tens and hundreds) and {{tlit|ojp|-tu}} (used with digits and hundreds).{{sfn|Vovin|2020|p=354}}

The only attested ordinal numeral is {{tlit|ojp|patu}} 'first'.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|pp=352–353}}
In [[Classical Japanese]], the other ordinal numerals had the same form as cardinals. This may also have been the case for Old Japanese, but there are no textual occurrences to settle the question.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|p=352}}

==== Classifiers ====
The [[classifier (linguistics)|classifier]] system of Old Japanese was much less developed than at later stages of the language, and classifiers were not obligatory between numerals and nouns.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|p=327}}
A few bound forms are attested phonographically: {{tlit|ojp|-tu}} (used with digits and hundreds), {{tlit|ojp|-ti}} (used with tens and hundreds), {{tlit|ojp|-ri}} (for people), {{tlit|ojp|-moto<sub>2</sub>}}, {{tlit|ojp|-pe<sub>1</sub>}} (for grassy plants) and {{tlit|ojp|-ri}} (for days).{{sfn|Vovin|2020|pp=354–364}}
Many ordinary nouns could also be used either freely or as classifiers.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|p=327}}

==== Prefixes ====
Old Japanese nominal prefixes included honorific {{tlit|ojp|mi-}}, intensive {{tlit|ojp|ma-}} from {{tlit|ojp|ma}} 'truth', diminutive or affectionate {{tlit|ojp|wo-}} and a prefix {{tlit|ojp|sa-}} of uncertain function.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|pp=85–108}}

==== Suffixes ====
Old Japanese nominals had suffixes or particles to mark diminutives, plural number and case.
When multiple suffixes occurred, case markers came last.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|p=109}} Unmarked nouns (but not pronouns) were neutral as to number.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|p=110}}
The main plural markers were the general-purpose {{tlit|ojp|ra}} and two markers restricted to animate nouns, {{tlit|ojp|do<sub>2</sub>mo<sub>2</sub>}} (limited to five words) and {{tlit|ojp|tati}}.{{sfn|Bentley|2012|p=195}}

The main case particles were{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=126}}

* [[accusative case|accusative]] {{tlit|ojp|wo}} marked objects (as in later Japanese) but also adverbials of duration.
* [[genitive case|genitive]] {{tlit|ojp|no<sub>2</sub>}} (unrestricted) and {{tlit|ojp|ga}} (restricted to people). In [[Late Middle Japanese]], {{tlit|ja|ga}} shifted to a [[nominative case]] marker.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|pp=126–127}}
* [[dative case|dative]] or [[locative case|locative]] {{tlit|ojp|ni}}{{sfn|Vovin|2020|pp=145–149}}
* [[ablative case|ablative]] {{tlit|ojp|yo<sub>1</sub>ri}} ~ {{tlit|ojp|yo<sub>1</sub>}} ~ {{tlit|ojp|yuri}} ~ {{tlit|ojp|yu}} from {{tlit|ojp|yuri}} 'after(wards)'.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=134}} Only the form {{tlit|ja|yori}} survived in Early Middle Japanese.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=126}}
* [[comitative case|comitative]] {{tlit|ojp|to<sub>2</sub>}}

The subject of a sentence was usually not marked.{{sfn|Bentley|2001|p=259}}
There are a few cases in the ''Senmyō'' of subjects of active verbs marked with a suffix {{tlit|ojp|-i}}, which is thought to be an archaism that was obsolete in the Old Japanese period.{{sfn|Vovin|2020|pp=126–129}}{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=131}}