Editing Proto-Semitic language (section)

=== Verbs ===
Traditionally, two conjugations are reconstructed for Proto-Semitic — a prefix conjugation and a suffix conjugation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=131–132|isbn=}}</ref> According to a hypothesis that has garnered wide support, the prefix conjugation was used with verbs that expressed actions, and the suffix conjugation was used with verbs that expressed states.<ref>{{cite book|author=Коган Л. Е.|chapter=Семитские языки|title=Языки мира: Семитские языки. Аккадский язык. Северозападносемитские языки|place=М.|publisher=Academia|year=2009|pages=75|isbn=978-5-87444-284-2}}</ref>

The prefix conjugation is reconstructed as follows:<ref>{{cite book|author=Weninger S.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Reconstructive Morphology|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=160|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=370|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
 !
 !
 !Singular
 !Plural
 !Dual
 |-
 !1 pers.
 |
 |*’a-
 |*ni-
 |
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 2 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 |*ta- 
 |*ta- – -ū
 |*ta- – -ā
 |-
 ! fem.
 |*ta- – -ī
 |*ta- – -ā
 |*ta- – -ā
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 3 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 |*ya-
 |*yi- – -ū
 |*ya- – -ā
 |-
 ! fem.
 |*ta-
 |*yi- – -ā
 |*ta- – -ā
 |}

The suffix conjugation is reconstructed as follows:<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=360|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
 !
 !
 !Singular
 !Plural
 !Dual
 |-
 !1 pers. 
 |
 |*-ku
 |*-na
 |*-kāya/-nāya
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 2 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 |*-ka/-ta 
 |*-kan(u)/-tanu
 |*-kā/-tanā  
 |-
 ! fem.
 |*-ki/-ti
 |*-kin(a)/-tina
 |*-kā/-tanā  
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 3 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 | –
 |*-ū
 |*-ā
 |-
 ! fem.
 |*-at
 |*-ā
 |*-atā
 |}

Verb stems are divided into base forms (a "G-stem",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Semitic languages - Verbal Morphology {{!}} The stem {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages/Verbal-morphology |access-date=2024-02-22 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> from {{langx|de|Grundstamm}}) and derived. The bases consist of a three-consonant root with thematic vowels. Among the derived ones, one distinguishes stems with a geminated middle consonant ({{langx|de|Doppelungsstamm}}), stems with a lengthened first vowel, causative stems (formed by means of the prefix ''*ša-''), nouns with the prefix ''*na-''/''*ni-'', stems with the suffix ''*-tV-'', stems that consist of a reduplicated biconsonantal root and stems with a geminated final consonant.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moscati S., Spitaler A., Ullendorff E., von Soden W.|title=An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages| place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|year=1980|pages=122–130|isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=378–406|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Weninger S.|title=The Semitic languages|chapter=Reconstructive Morphology|place=Berlin — Boston|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=156–157|isbn=978-3-11-018613-0}}</ref>

From the basic stems, an active participle was formed on the pattern CāCiC, the passive one on the patterns CaCīC and CaCūC.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=419|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref>

From the derived stems, the participles were formed by means of the prefix ''*mu-'', while the vocalisation of the active ones was ''a-i'' and that of the passive ones was ''a-a''<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=420–421|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref> (on this pattern, for example, the Arabic name ''muḥammad'' is formed from the root ''ḥmd'' ‘to praise’.<ref>{{citation|author=Huehnergard J.|title=Proto-Semitic Language and Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/1421136|volume=The American Heritage dictionary of the English Language|year=2011|pages=2066}}</ref>)

The [[imperative mood]] was formed only for the second person, and the form for the singular masculine was the pure stem:<ref>{{cite book|author=Lipiński E.|title=Semitic languages:Outline of a Comparative Grammar|place=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|year=1997|pages=366–367|isbn=90-6831-939-6}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
 !
 !
 !Singular
 !Plural
 !Dual
 |-
 ! rowspan=3| 2 pers.
 |-
 ! masc.
 | -
 | *-ū
 | *-ā 
 |-
 ! fem.
 | *-i
 | *-ā
 | *-ā
 |}