Editing Roman naming conventions (section)

==Later development==
During the Empire, a variety of new naming conventions developed which, while differing, were internally coherent.<ref name=Salway145>Salway, p.145</ref>

===Binary nomenclature and polyonymy===
Under the "High Empire", the new aristocracy began adopting two or more nomina – a practice which has been termed 'binary nomenclature'.<ref name=Salway131>Salway, p.131</ref> This arose out of a desire to incorporate distinguished maternal ancestry in a name or, in order to inherit property, an heir was required by a will to incorporate the [[testator]]'s name into his own name.<ref name=Salway132>Salway, p.132</ref> For example, the suffect consul of AD 118/9, [[Gaius Bruttius Praesens Lucius Fulvius Rusticus]], has a name which is composed of two standard sets of tria nomina: he was the natural son of a Lucius Bruttius, and added the nomina of his maternal grandfather, Lucius Fulvius Rusticus, to his paternal nomina.<ref name=Salway132/>

In order to reflect an illustrious pedigree or other connections, the aristocracy expanded the binary nomenclature concept to include other nomina from an individual's paternal and maternal ancestry.<ref name=Salway132/> There was no limit to the number of names which could be added in this way (known as polyonomy), and, for example, the consul of 169 AD, (usually called [[Quintus Pompeius Senecio Sosius Priscus|Q. Sosius Priscus]]) had thirty-eight names comprising fourteen sets of nomina reflecting a complex pedigree stretching back three generations.<ref name=Salway132/>

===Cognomen replaces praenomen===
The praenomen, even under the classic system, had never been particularly distinctive because of the limited number of praenomina available.<ref name=Flower>{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic|editor-last=Flower|editor-first=Harriet |isbn=978-0-521-00390-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/119 119]|date=2004-01-19|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/119}}</ref> Between the late Republic and the second century AD, the praenomen gradually became less used and eventually disappeared altogether.<ref name=Salway131/> Even among the senatorial aristocracy it became a rarity by about 300 AD.<ref name=Salway131/> In part this came about through a tendency for the same praenomen to be given to all males of a family, thereby fossilizing a particular praenomen/nomen combination and making the praenomen even less distinctive e.g. all males in the emperor [[Vespasian]]'s family (including all his sons) had the praenomen/nomen combination Titus Flavius:<ref name=Salway130>Salway, p.130</ref>
{{Tree chart/start|align=center|summary=An example family tree}}
{{Tree chart| | | | |FP|FP=[[Titus Flavius Petro]]}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | |!}}
{{Tree chart| | | | |FS|y|VP||FS=[[Titus Flavius Sabinus (father of Vespasian)|Titus Flavius Sabinus]]|VP=[[Vespasia Polla]]}}
{{Tree chart| | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.}}
{{Tree chart| | |FS| | | | | |FV|y|FD|FS=[[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul AD 47)|Titus Flavius Sabinus]]|FV=[[Vespasian|Titus Flavius Vespasianus]]<br>emperor '''Vespasian'''|FD=[[Domitilla the Elder|Flavia Domitilla]]}}
{{Tree chart| |,|-|^|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|(}}
{{Tree chart|FS| |FC| |TF| |FD|FS=[[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul AD 82)|Titus Flavius Sabinus]]|FC=[[Titus Flavius Clemens (consul)|Titus Flavius Clemens]]|TF=[[Titus|Titus Flavius Vespasianus]]<br>emperor '''Titus'''|FD={{nowrap|[[Domitian|Titus Flavius Domitianus]]}}<br>emperor '''Domitian'''}}
{{Tree chart/end}}
The cognomen, as in Vespasian's family, then assumed the distinguishing function for individuals; where this happened, the cognomen replaced the praenomen in intimate address.<ref name=Salway130/> The result was that two names remained in use for formal public address but instead of praenomen + nomen, it became nomen + cognomen.<ref name=Salway130/>

===Edict of Caracalla===
With the [[Constitutio Antoniniana]] in 212, the emperor [[Caracalla]] granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. It had long been the expectation that when a non-Roman acquired citizenship he, as part of his enfranchisement, took on a Roman name.<ref name=Salway133>Salway, p.133</ref> With the mass enfranchisement of 212, the new citizens adopted [[Aurelia gens|the nomen "Aurelius"]] in recognition of Caracalla's beneficence<ref name=Salway130/> (the emperor's full name was Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus, with Aurelius as the nomen). "Aurelius" quickly became the most common nomen in the east and the second most common (after "Julius") in the west.<ref name=Salway134>Salway, p.134</ref> The change in the origins of the new governing elite that assumed control of the empire from the end of the third century can be seen in their names: seven of the eleven emperors between [[Gallienus]] and [[Diocletian]] ([[Claudius Gothicus]], [[Quintillus]], [[Probus (emperor)|Probus]], [[Carus]], [[Carinus]], [[Numerian]] and [[Maximian]]) bore the name "Marcus Aurelius"<ref name=Salway136>Salway, p.136</ref>

Although praenomina were not adopted by the new citizens, reflecting the pre-existing decline amongst "old" Romans,<ref name=Salway133/> in the west the new names were formulated on the same basis as the existing Roman practices.<ref name=Salway134/> In the east, however, the new citizens formulated their names by placing "Aurelius" before versions of their non-Roman given name and a patronymic.<ref name=Salway134/> Ultimately, the ubiquity of "Aurelius" meant that it could not function as a true distinguishing nomen, and became primarily just a badge of citizenship added to any name.<ref name=Salway134/>

===Traditional nomen replaced===
Although a nomen would long be required for official purposes, and, in isolated corners of the empire and in parts of Italy, its usage would persist into the seventh century, the nomen was generally omitted from the name (even of emperors) by the third century.<ref name=Salway135/>

Two factors encouraged its frequent non-use. Firstly, the cognomen increasingly became the distinguishing name and general name of address.<ref name=Salway135/> As a result, "New Romans" and, under their influence, "old Romans" too, either dropped the nomen from their name<ref name=Salway135/> or, in some cases, treated the nomen as a praenomen.<ref name=Salway136/>

Secondly, with the nomen becoming an increasingly fossilized formality, non-Italian families, even those who had acquired citizenship and a nomen prior to 212, began to ignore their nomen.<ref name=Salway135>Salway, p.135</ref> When a nomen was required for official purposes they would simply put the default nomen of "Aurelius" in front of their name, rather than use their actual nomen.<ref name=Salway135/>