Editing Short-term memory (section)

== Conditions ==
{{Primary sources section |find=Short-term memory |find2=impairment |date=October 2021}}

=== Age ===
[[Short-term memory loss|Memory loss]] is a natural aging process. Research has reported short-term memory decreases with age. The decline appears to be constant and continuous beginning in the twenties.

One study used data from a previous study that compiled normative French data for three short-term memory tasks (verbal, visual and spatial). They found impairments in participants between the ages of 55 and 85 years of age.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fournet |first1=N. |last2=Roulin |first2=J. Vallet |last3=Beaudoin |first3=M. |last4=Agrigoroaei |first4=S. |last5=Paignon |first5=A. |last6=Dantzer |first6=C. |last7=Descrichard |first7=O. |year=2012 |title=Evaluating short-term and working memory in order adults: french normative data |journal=Aging & Mental Health |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=922–930 |doi=10.1080/13607863.2012.674487 |pmid=22533476 |s2cid=28301212}}</ref>

Advanced age is also associated with decrements in episodic memory. The associated deficit is that differences in recognition memory reflect difficulty in binding components of a memory episode and bound units.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bender |first1=A. |last2=Naveh-Benjamin |first2=M. |last3=Raz |first3=N. |year=2010 |title=Associative deficit in recognition memory in a lifespan sample of Healthy Adults |journal=Psychology and Aging |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=940–948 |doi=10.1037/a0020595 |pmc=3011045 |pmid=20822256}}</ref> A previous study used mixed and blocked test designs and reported an associative deficit for older adults.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=T. |last2=Naveh-Benjamin |first2=M. |year=2012 |title=Assessing the Associative Deficit of Older adults in long-term and Short-term/working Memory |journal=Psychology and Aging |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=666–682 |doi=10.1037/a0026943 |pmid=22308997 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10355/14958 }}</ref>

Even absent neurological diseases and disorders, progressive and gradual loss of some intellectual functions become evident in later years. Several tests assess the psychophysical characteristics of the elderly, such as the functional reach (FR) test and the [[mini–mental state examination]] (MMSE). FR is an index of the aptitude to maintain balance in an upright position, while the MMSE test is a global index of cognitive abilities. These tests were used by Costarella  et al.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Costarella |first1=M. |last2=Montelone |first2=L. |last3=Steindler |first3=R. |last4=Zuccaro |first4=S. |year=2010 |title=Decline of physical and cognitive conditions in the elderly measured through the functional reach test and the mini-mental state examination |journal=Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=332–337 |doi=10.1016/j.archger.2009.05.013 |pmid=19545918}}</ref> to evaluate the psychophysical characteristics of older adults.  They found a loss of physical performance (FR, related to height) as well as a loss of cognitive abilities (MMSE).{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

=== Alzheimer's disease ===
Memory distortion in [[Alzheimer's disease]] is a disorder common in older adults. One study compared patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease versus age matched healthy adults.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MaDuffie |first1=K. |last2=Atkins |first2=A. |last3=Flegal |first3=K. |last4=Clark |first4=C. |last5=Reuter-Lorenz |first5=P. |year=2012 |title=Memory distortion in alzheimer's disease: deficient monitoring of short-term and long-term memory |journal=Neuropsychology |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=509–516 |doi=10.1037/a0028684 |pmc=3389800 |pmid=22746309}}</ref> Alzheimer's patients had more severely reduced short-term memory. Visual short-term memory is also impaired in sporadic, late-onset as well as familial Alzheimer's disease, when assessed using delayed reproduction tasks.<ref name="Zokaei 41–50"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liang |first1=Yuying |last2=Pertzov |first2=Yoni |last3=Nicholas |first3=Jennifer M. |last4=Henley |first4=Susie M. D. |last5=Crutch |first5=Sebastian |last6=Woodward |first6=Felix |last7=Leung |first7=Kelvin |last8=Fox |first8=Nick C. |last9=Husain |first9=Masud |date=May 2016 |title=Visual short-term memory binding deficit in familial Alzheimer's disease |journal=Cortex |volume=78 |pages=150–164 |doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2016.01.015 |pmc=4865502 |pmid=27085491 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/7854_2019_103 |chapter=Working Memory in Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease |title=Processes of Visuospatial Attention and Working Memory |series=Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences |year=2019 |last1=Zokaei |first1=Nahid |last2=Husain |first2=Masud |volume=41 |pages=325–344 |pmid=31347008 |isbn=978-3-030-31025-7 |s2cid=198912072 }}</ref> These studies point to a deficit in visual feature binding as an important component of the deficit. [[Episodic memory]] and semantic abilities deteriorate early in Alzheimer's disease. Since the cognitive system includes interconnected and reciprocally influenced neuronal networks, one study hypothesized that stimulation of lexical-semantic abilities may benefit semantically structured episodic memory.  They found that Lexical-Semantic stimulation treatment could improve episodic memory.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jelicic |first1=N. |last2=Cagnin |first2=A. |last3=Meneghello |first3=F. |last4=Turolla |first4=A. |last5=Ermani |first5=M. |last6=Dam |first6=M. |year=2012 |title=Effects of Lexical-Semantic treatments on memory in early alzheimers disease |journal=Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=949–956 |doi=10.1177/1545968312440146 |pmid=22460609 |s2cid=206759948}}</ref>

=== Aphasia ===
[[Aphasia]]s commonly occur after left-hemisphere [[stroke]] or with [[Neurodegenerative disease|neurodegenerative]] conditions such as [[primary progressive aphasia]]s.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315764061 |title=Cognitive Neuroscience of Language |year=2014 |last1=Kemmerer |first1=David |isbn=978-1-315-76406-1 |s2cid=142396490 }}</ref> Patients with left temporoparietal focal lesions may suffer a deficit of verbal short-term memory, which may also be a feature of [[Logopenic progressive aphasia|logopenic primary progressive aphasia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vallar |first1=G. |last2=Corno |first2=M. |last3=Basso |first3=A. |date=September 1992 |title=Auditory and visual verbal short-term memory in aphasia |journal=Cortex |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=383–389 |doi=10.1016/s0010-9452(13)80148-7 |pmid=1395642|s2cid=4477413 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vallar |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Di Betta |first2=Anna Maria |last3=Silveri |first3=Maria Caterina |title=The phonological short-term store-rehearsal system: Patterns of impairment and neural correlates |journal=Neuropsychologia |date=May 1997 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=795–812 |doi=10.1016/s0028-3932(96)00127-3 |pmid=9204486 |s2cid=41912458 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Aaron M. |last2=Snider |first2=Sarah F. |last3=Campbell |first3=Rachael E. |last4=Friedman |first4=Rhonda B. |date=October 2015 |title=Phonological short-term memory in logopenic variant primary progressive aphasia and mild Alzheimer's disease |journal=Cortex |volume=71 |pages=183–189 |doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2015.07.003 |pmc=4521400 |pmid=26232551}}</ref>

Many language-impaired patients complain about short-term memory deficits. Family members confirm that patients have trouble recalling previously known names and events. These signals are supported by studies reporting that many aphasics also have trouble with visual-memory required tasks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jodzio |first1=Krzysztof |last2=Taraszkiewicz |first2=Wioleta |title=Short-term memory impairment: evidence from aphasia |journal=Psychology of Language and Communication |date=2009 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=39–48 |url=http://www.plc.psychologia.pl/plc/plc/contents/fulltext/03-2_3.pdf |s2cid=51760974 }}</ref> There have been reports of deficits in verbal short-term memory when related to short-term memory, these deficits are harder to treat since there are less measurements for verbal short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Greenspan |first1=Wendy |last2=Obermeyer |first2=Jessica |last3=Tucker |first3=Carole A. |last4=Grunwald |first4=Heidi |last5=Reinert |first5=Laura |last6=Martin |first6=Nadine |date=2020-01-11 |title=Clinician perspectives on the assessment of short-term memory in aphasia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2020.1712584 |journal=Aphasiology |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=334–356 |doi=10.1080/02687038.2020.1712584 |pmid=34024984 |pmc=8132705 |issn=0268-7038}}</ref>

=== Schizophrenia ===
Core symptoms of [[schizophrenia]] patients have been linked to cognitive deficits. One neglected factor that contributes to those deficits is the [[Time perception|comprehension of time]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Landgraf |first1=S. |last2=Steingen |first2=J. |last3=Eppert |first3=J. |last4=Niedermeyer |first4=U. |last5=der Meer |first5=E. |last6=Kruegar |first6=F. |year=2011 |title=Temporal information processing in short-and long-term memory of patients with schitzophrenia |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=10 |page=e26140 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...626140L |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0026140 |pmc=3203868 |pmid=22053182 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Schizophrenics are not able to process how much time has passed. They are unable to process this because they have impaired temporal information processing. They cannot tell what the actual time is, what day of the week it is, what month it is, or what year it is. For some, they feel as though time is either sped up or slowed down. This causes them to have instability in life. Not being able to tell time or know what year they are in, forces them to not be able to have a stable life. Schizophrenics have the inability to detect rhythm irregularities and estimating durations of time. This affects the verbal and psychical abilities. They have a harder time making judgments between multiple events because it is all bound together as one for them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amadeo |first1=Maria Bianca |last2=Esposito |first2=Davide |last3=Escelsior |first3=Andrea |last4=Campus |first4=Claudio |last5=Inuggi |first5=Alberto |last6=Pereira Da Silva |first6=Beatriz |last7=Serafini |first7=Gianluca |last8=Amore |first8=Mario |last9=Gori |first9=Monica |title=Time in schizophrenia: a link between psychopathology, psychophysics and technology |journal=Translational Psychiatry |date=12 August 2022 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=331 |doi=10.1038/s41398-022-02101-x |pmid=35961974 |pmc=9374791 }}</ref>

===Post-traumatic stress disorder===
[[Posttraumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) is associated with altered processing of emotional material with strong attentional bias toward trauma-related information. It interferes with cognitive processing. Aside from trauma processing specificities, a range of cognitive impairments have been associated with PTSD state, including attention and verbal memory deficits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Landré |first1=Lionel |last2=Destrieux |first2=Christophe |last3=Andersson |first3=Frédéric |last4=Barantin |first4=Laurent |last5=Quidé |first5=Yann |last6=Tapia |first6=Géraldine |last7=Jaafari |first7=Nematollah |last8=Clarys |first8=David |last9=Gaillard |first9=Philippe |last10=Isingrini |first10=Michel |last11=El-Hage |first11=Wissam |date=February 2012 |title=Working memory processing of traumatic material in women with post traumatic stress disorder |journal=J Psychiatry Neurosci |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=87–94 |doi=10.1503/jpn.100167 |pmc=3297067 |pmid=21971161}}</ref>

==== Intelligence ====
Few studies have been done on the relationship between short-term memory and intelligence. One study examined whether people with PTSD had equivalent levels of short-term, non-verbal memory on the [[Benton Visual Retention Test]] (BVRT), and whether they had equivalent levels of intelligence on the [[Raven's Progressive Matrices|Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM)]]. They found that people with PTSD had worse short-term, non-verbal memory on the BVRT, despite having comparable levels of intelligence on the RSPM, concluding impairments in memory influence intelligence assessments in the subjects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emdad |first1=Reza |last2=Söndergaard |first2=Hans Peter |title=General intelligence and short-term memory impairments in Post Traumatic Stress Disorder patients |journal=Journal of Mental Health |date=January 2006 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=205–216 |doi=10.1080/09638230600608966 |s2cid=144833060 }}</ref>