Editing Systems theory (section)

===Founding and early development===
Where assumptions in Western science from [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] to [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'' (1687) have historically influenced all areas from the [[Hard Science|hard]] to [[Social science|social]] sciences (see, [[David Easton]]'s seminal development of the "[[political system]]" as an analytical construct), the original systems theorists explored the implications of 20th-century advances in terms of systems.

Between 1929 and 1951, [[Robert Maynard Hutchins]] at the [[University of Chicago]] had undertaken efforts to encourage innovation and interdisciplinary research in the social sciences, aided by the [[Ford Foundation]] with the university's interdisciplinary [[Division of the Social Sciences (University of Chicago)|Division of the Social Sciences]] established in 1931.<ref name=Hammond />{{rp|5–9}}

Many early systems theorists aimed at finding a general systems theory that could explain all systems in all fields of science.

"[[#General systems research and systems inquiry|General systems theory]]" (GST; [[German language|German]]: ''allgemeine Systemlehre'') was coined in the 1940s by [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]], who sought a new approach to the study of [[living systems]].<ref name=":0">Montuori, A. 2011. "Systems Approach." pp. 414–421 in ''Encyclopedia of Creativity'' (2nd ed.). Academic Press. {{doi|10.1016/B978-0-12-375038-9.00212-0}}.</ref> Bertalanffy developed the theory via lectures beginning in 1937 and then via publications beginning in 1946.<ref name=":2">[[Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy|von Bertalanffy, Karl Ludwig]]. [1967] 1970. ''Robots, Men and Minds: Psychology in the Modern World'' (1st ed.), translated by H-J. Flechtner. Düsseldorf: Econ Verlag GmbH. p. 115.</ref> According to [[Mike Jackson (systems scientist)|Mike C. Jackson]] (2000), Bertalanffy promoted an embryonic form of GST as early as the 1920s and 1930s, but it was not until the early 1950s that it became more widely known in scientific circles.<ref name=":3">[[Mike Jackson (systems scientist)|Mike C. Jackson]]. 2000. ''Systems Approaches to Management''. London, England: Springer.</ref>

Jackson also claimed that Bertalanffy's work was informed by [[Alexander Bogdanov]]'s three-volume ''[[Tectology]]'' (1912–1917), providing the conceptual base for GST.<ref name=":3" /> A similar position is held by [[Richard Mattessich]] (1978) and [[Fritjof Capra]] (1996). Despite this, Bertalanffy never even mentioned Bogdanov in his works.

The systems view was based on several fundamental ideas. First, all phenomena can be viewed as a web of relationships among elements, or a [[system]]. Second, all systems, whether [[electrical]], [[biological]], or [[social system|social]], have common [[patterns]], [[behavior]]s, and [[Property (philosophy)|properties]] that the observer can analyze and use to develop greater insight into the behavior of complex phenomena and to move closer toward a unity of the sciences. System philosophy, methodology and application are complementary to this science.<ref name=":1" />

Cognizant of advances in science that questioned classical assumptions in the organizational sciences, Bertalanffy's idea to develop a theory of systems began as early as the [[interwar period]], publishing "An Outline for General Systems Theory" in the ''[[British Journal for the Philosophy of Science]]'' by 1950.<ref>[[Ludwig von Bertalanffy|von Bertalanffy, Ludwig]]. 1950. "An Outline for General Systems Theory." ''[[British Journal for the Philosophy of Science]]'' 1(2).</ref>

In 1954, von Bertalanffy, along with [[Anatol Rapoport]], [[Ralph W. Gerard]], and [[Kenneth Boulding]], came together at the [[Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences]] in Palo Alto to discuss the creation of a "society for the advancement of General Systems Theory." In December that year, a meeting of around 70 people was held in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] to form a society for the exploration and development of GST.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=History|url=https://www.isss.org/history/|access-date=2021-03-13|website=www.isss.org|archive-date=2021-05-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510215818/https://www.isss.org/history/|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Society for General Systems Research]] (renamed the International Society for Systems Science in 1988) was established in 1956 thereafter as an affiliate of the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS),<ref name=":4" /> specifically catalyzing systems theory as an area of study. The field developed from the work of Bertalanffy, Rapoport, Gerard, and Boulding, as well as other theorists in the 1950s like [[William Ross Ashby]], [[Margaret Mead]], [[Gregory Bateson]], and [[C. West Churchman]], among others.

Bertalanffy's ideas were adopted by others, working in mathematics, psychology, biology, [[game theory]], and [[social network analysis]]. Subjects that were studied included those of [[complexity]], [[self-organization]], [[connectionism]] and [[adaptive systems]]. In fields like [[cybernetics]], researchers such as Ashby, [[Norbert Wiener]], [[John von Neumann]], and [[Heinz von Foerster]] examined complex systems mathematically; Von Neumann discovered [[cellular automata]] and self-reproducing systems, again with only pencil and paper. [[Aleksandr Lyapunov]] and [[Jules Henri Poincaré]] worked on the foundations of [[chaos theory]] without any [[computer]] at all. At the same time, [[Howard T. Odum]], known as a radiation ecologist, recognized that the study of general systems required a language that could depict [[energy|energetics]], [[thermodynamics]] and [[Kinetics (physics)|kinetics]] at any system scale. To fulfill this role, Odum developed a general system, or [[universal language]], based on the circuit language of [[electronics]], known as the [[Energy Systems Language]].

The [[Cold War]] affected the research project for systems theory in ways that sorely disappointed many of the seminal theorists. Some began to recognize that theories defined in association with systems theory had deviated from the initial general systems theory view.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hull |first=D. L. |date=1970 |title=Systemic Dynamic Social Theory. |journal=Sociological Quarterly |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=351–363 |doi=10.1111/j.1533-8525.1970.tb00778.x}}</ref> Economist Kenneth Boulding, an early researcher in systems theory, had concerns over the manipulation of systems concepts. Boulding concluded from the effects of the Cold War that abuses of [[Political power|power]] always prove consequential and that systems theory might address such issues.<ref name=Hammond />{{rp|229–233}} Since the end of the Cold War, a renewed interest in systems theory emerged, combined with efforts to strengthen an [[ethical]]<ref>Ludwig von Bertalanffy. 1968. ''General System theory: Foundations, Development, Applications''.</ref> view on the subject.

In sociology, systems thinking also began in the 20th century, including [[Talcott Parsons]]' [[Action theory (sociology)|action theory]]<ref name=":5">Rudolf Stichweh (2011), "[http://www.fiw.uni-bonn.de/demokratieforschung/personen/stichweh/pdfs/80_stw_systems-theory-international-encyclopedia-of-political-science_2.pdf Systems Theory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307050846/https://www.fiw.uni-bonn.de/demokratieforschung/personen/stichweh/pdfs/80_stw_systems-theory-international-encyclopedia-of-political-science_2.pdf|date=2016-03-07}}", in:y.</ref> and [[Niklas Luhmann]]'s [[Social system#Niklas Luhmann|social systems theory]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Luhmann|first=Niklas|title=Soziale Systeme: Grundriß einer allgemeinen Theorie|date=1984|publisher=Suhrkamp}}</ref><ref>Bertrand Badie et al. (eds.), ''International Encyclopedia of Political Science''. Sage New York.</ref> According to Rudolf Stichweh (2011):<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|2}}<blockquote>Since its beginnings the [[social science]]s were an important part of the establishment of systems theory... [T]he two most influential suggestions were the comprehensive sociological versions of systems theory which were proposed by Talcott Parsons since the 1950s and by Niklas Luhmann since the 1970s.</blockquote>Elements of systems thinking can also be seen in the work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]], particularly [[control theory]].