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Wireless power transfer
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=== Lasers === [[File:Laser-powered model airplane.jpg|thumb|A laser beam centered on a panel of photovoltaic cells provides enough power to a lightweight model airplane for it to fly.]] In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to the visible region of the spectrum (.2 to 2 [[micrometers]]), power can be transmitted by converting electricity into a [[laser]] beam that is received and concentrated onto [[photovoltaic cell]]s (solar cells).<ref name="FraunhoferISE">{{cite web |url=https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/en/business-areas/iii-v-and-concentrator-photovoltaics/research-topics/power-by-light |title=Power-by-Light |website=Fraunhofer ISE}}</ref><ref name="OpticalWPT">{{Cite book |doi=10.1109/ICSOS.2011.5783662 |isbn=978-1-4244-9686-0 |chapter=Optical wireless power transmission at long wavelengths |title=2011 International Conference on Space Optical Systems and Applications (ICSOS) |pages=164โ170 |year=2011 |last1=Sahai |first1=Aakash |last2=Graham |first2=David |s2cid=18985866}}</ref> This mechanism is generally known as 'power beaming' because the power is beamed at a receiver that can convert it to electrical energy. At the receiver, special photovoltaic laser power converters which are optimized for monochromatic light conversion are applied.<ref name="Bett2008">{{Cite book |doi=10.1109/pvsc.2008.4922910 |isbn=978-1-4244-1640-0 |chapter=IIIโV solar cells under monochromatic illumination |title=2008 33rd IEEE Photovolatic Specialists Conference |pages=1โ5 |year=2008 |last1=Bett |first1=Andreas W. |last2=Dimroth |first2=Frank |last3=Lockenhoff |first3=Rudiger |last4=Oliva |first4=Eduard |last5=Schubert |first5=Johannes |s2cid=21042923}}</ref> Advantages compared to other wireless methods are:<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/jan/04/wireless-power-technology-witricity |title=Wireless power spells end for cables |work=The Observer |location=London |date=4 January 2009 |first=David |last=Smith}}</ref> * [[Collimated]] monochromatic [[wavefront]] propagation allows narrow beam cross-section area for transmission over large distances. As a result, there is little or no reduction in power when increasing the distance from the transmitter to the receiver. * Compact size: [[solid state laser]]s fit into small products. * No [[radio-frequency]] interference to existing radio communication such as [[Wi-Fi]] and cell phones. * Access control: only receivers hit by the laser receive power. Drawbacks include: * Laser radiation is hazardous. Without a proper safety mechanism, low power levels can blind humans and other animals. High power levels can kill through localized spot heating. * Optical to electrical conversion efficiency of photovoltaic cells is limited. However, special photovoltaic power converters for laser light have demonstrated efficiencies up to 68.9% <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Helmers |display-authors=etal |title=68.9% Efficient GaAs-Based Photonic Power Conversion Enabled by Photon Recycling and Optical Resonance |journal=Phys. Status Solidi RRL |volume=15 |date=2021 |issue=7 |page=2100113 |doi=10.1002/pssr.202100113 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021PSSRR..1500113H }}</ref> * Atmospheric absorption, and absorption and scattering by clouds, fog, rain, etc., causes up to 100% losses. * Requires a direct line of sight with the target. (Instead of being beamed directly onto the receiver, the laser light can also be guided by an optical fiber. Then one speaks of [[power-over-fiber]] technology.) Laser "power beaming" technology was explored in [[Directed-energy weapon|military weapons]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Skillings |first=Jonathan |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-10024153-76.html |title=Laser weapons: A distant target, CNET news August 23, 2008 1:41 pm PDT |publisher=CNET |date=23 August 2008 |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defensetech.org/2006/01/12/laser-weapons-almost-ready-not/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091120185836/http://defensetech.org/2006/01/12/laser-weapons-almost-ready-not/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=20 November 2009 |title=Laser Weapons "Almost Ready?" Not! |work=Defensetech |publisher=Defensetech.org |access-date=4 June 2009 |date=2006-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.army.mil/-news/2009/01/30/16279-white-sands-testing-new-laser-weapon-system/ |title=White Sands testing new laser weapon system, US Army.mil, 30 Jan 2009 |publisher=United States Army |date=30 January 2009 |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref> and [[Laser propulsion|aerospace]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defensetech.org/2003/11/06/lasers-power-planes-drones/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119052944/http://defensetech.org/2003/11/06/lasers-power-planes-drones/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=19 January 2010 |title=Lasers Power Planes, Drones |publisher=Defensetech.org |access-date=4 June 2009 |date=2003-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/051024_spaceelevator_challenge.html |title=Riding a Beam of Light: NASA's First Space Elevator Competition Proves Highly Challenging |first=Roger G. |last=Gilbertson |work=Space.com |date=24 October 2005 |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref> applications. Also, it is applied for the powering of various kinds of sensors in industrial environments. Lately, it is developed for powering commercial and [[consumer electronics]]. Wireless energy transfer systems using lasers for consumer space have to satisfy [[laser safety]] requirements standardized under IEC 60825.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soltani |display-authors=etal |title=Safety Analysis for Laser-Based Optical Wireless Communications: A Tutorial |journal=Proceedings of the IEEE |date=2022 |volume=110 |issue=8 |pages=1045โ1072 |doi=10.1109/JPROC.2022.3181968 |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9803253|arxiv=2102.08707 }}</ref> The first wireless power system using lasers for consumer applications was [[Wi-Charge]], demonstrated in 2018, capable of delivering power to stationary and moving devices across a room. This wireless power system complies with safety regulations according to IEC 60825 standard. It is also approved by the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20180110006324/en/Wi-Charge-Wins-CES-2018-Innovation-Award#new_tab |title=Wi-Charge Wins CES 2018 Best of Innovation Award |access-date=2018-03-12}}</ref> Other details include [[Diffraction#Propagation of a laser beam|propagation]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/newsletters/leos/oct05/free_space.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023230609/http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/newsletters/leos/oct05/free_space.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 October 2008 |title=Free-Space Laser Propagation: Atmospheric Effects |publisher=Ieee.org |access-date=4 June 2009}}<br />[https://web.archive.org/web/20060317124222/http://www.mellesgriot.com/pdf/CatalogX/X_36_6-9.pdf Propagation Characteristics of Laser Beams โ Melles Griot catalog]<br />{{cite book |url={{Google books |id=4NXHYg70qqIC |plainurl=yes}} |title=L. C. Andrews and R. L. Phillips, Laser Beam Propagation through Random Media, 2nd ed. (SPIE Press, 2005) |access-date=4 June 2009 |isbn=978-0-8194-5948-0 |year=2005 |last1=Andrews |first1=Larry C |last2=Phillips |first2=Ronald L |publisher=SPIE Press}}</ref> and the [[Quantum coherence|coherence and the range limitation problem]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Dr. Rรผdiger Paschotta |url=https://www.rp-photonics.com/coherence.html |title=An explanation of Coherence |publisher=Rp-photonics.com |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref> [[Geoffrey A. Landis|Geoffrey Landis]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islandone.org/Settlements/EvolutionaryPathSPS.html |title=An Evolutionary Path to SPS |publisher=Islandone.org |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geoffreylandis.com/supersynch.html |title=A Supersynchronous SPS |publisher=Geoffreylandis.com |date=28 August 1997 |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/papers.html |title=Papers Relating to Space Photovoltaic Power, Power beaming, and Solar Power Satellites |journal=Astrobiology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=161โ4 |doi=10.1089/153110701753198927 |pmid=12467119 |access-date=4 June 2009 |year=2001 |last1=Landis |first1=Geoffrey A. |bibcode=2001AsBio...1..161L}}</ref> is one of the pioneers of [[solar power satellites]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nss.org/settlement/ssp/ |title=Limitless clean energy from space |publisher=Nss.org |access-date=4 June 2009 |archive-date=29 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529144039/http://www.nss.org/settlement/ssp/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> and laser-based transfer of energy, especially for space and lunar missions. The demand for safe and frequent space missions has resulted in proposals for a laser-powered [[space elevator]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceward.org/elevator2010-pb |title=Power Beaming (Climber) Competition |publisher=Spaceward.org |access-date=4 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724060700/http://www.spaceward.org/elevator2010-pb |archive-date=24 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceelevator.com/ |title=From Concept to Reality |publisher=The Space Elevator |access-date=4 June 2009}}<br />{{cite web |date=31 January 2009 |url=http://crnano.typepad.com/crnblog/2009/01/space-elevator-tethers-coming-closer.html |title=Space Elevator Tethers Coming Closer |publisher=Crnano.typepad.com |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref> NASA's [[Dryden Flight Research Center]] has demonstrated a lightweight unmanned model plane powered by a laser beam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-087-DFRC.html |title=Dryden Flight Research Center, Beamed Laser Power For UAVs |publisher=Nasa.gov |date=7 May 2008 |access-date=4 June 2009}}</ref> This proof-of-concept demonstrates the feasibility of periodic recharging using a laser beam system. Scientists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences have developed a proof-of-concept of utilizing a dual-wavelength laser to wirelessly charge portable devices or UAVs.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A coupled model on energy conversion in laser power beaming |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=393 |pages=211โ216 |date=15 May 2018 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.05.010 |last1=Wu |first1=Chen-Wu |last2=Wang |first2=Jyhwen |last3=Huang |first3=Chen-Guang |url=http://dspace.imech.ac.cn/handle/311007/77622 |bibcode=2018JPS...393..211W |s2cid=104165547}}</ref>
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