Editing Building material (section)

==Man-made substances==

===Fired bricks and clay blocks===
[[File:Stapel bakstenen - Pile of bricks 2005 Fruggo.jpg|right|thumb|A pile of fired bricks.]]
[[File:Assentamento com argamassa polimérica.JPG|thumb|Clay blocks (sometimes called clay block brick) being laid with an adhesive rather than mortar]]
[[Brick]]s are made in a similar way to mud-bricks except without the fibrous binder such as straw and are ''fired'' ("burned" in a [[brick clamp]] or [[kiln]]) after they have air-dried to permanently harden them. Kiln fired clay bricks are a [[ceramic]] material. Fired bricks can be solid or have hollow cavities to aid in drying and make them lighter and easier to transport. The individual bricks are placed upon each other in courses using [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]]. Successive courses being used to build up walls, [[arch]]es, and other architectural elements. Fired brick walls are usually substantially thinner than cob/adobe while keeping the same vertical strength. They require more energy to create but are easier to transport and store, and are lighter than stone blocks. Romans extensively used fired brick of a shape and type now called [[Roman brick]]s.<ref>[http://www.wienerberger.com/natural-building-with-clay/history-of-bricks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402040850/http://www.wienerberger.com/natural-building-with-clay/history-of-bricks|date=2013-04-02}} History of bricks wienerberger.com</ref> Building with brick gained much popularity in the mid-18th century and 19th centuries. This was due to lower costs with increases in brick<ref name="Prime design build">{{cite web |title=Top 5 Reasons Why Bricks Are The Most Popular Building Material |url=http://www.primedb.co/top-5-reasons-bricks-popular-building-material-denver-today/ |publisher=primedb.co |date= May 11, 2017}}</ref> manufacturing and fire-safety in increasingly crowded cities.

The [[cinder block]] supplemented or replaced fired bricks in the late 20th century often being used for the inner parts of masonry walls and by themselves.

[[Structural clay tile]]s (clay blocks) are clay or [[terracotta]] and typically are perforated with holes.

===Cement composites===
[[Cement]] bonded composites are made of hydrated cement paste that binds wood, particles, or fibers to make pre-cast building components. Various fiberous materials, including [[paper]], [[fiberglass]], and [[carbon-fiber]] have been used as binders.

Wood and natural fibers are composed of various soluble organic compounds like [[carbohydrate]]s, [[glycoside]]s and phenolics. These compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before using a wood in making cement bonded composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed.

Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-cement composite to that of a neat cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. To determine wood-cement compatibility, methods based on different properties are used, such as, hydration characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology. Various methods are used by researchers such as the measurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-aggregate mix;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sandermann |first1=Wilhelm |last2=Kohler |first2=Roland |title=Über eine kurze Eignungsprüfung von Hölzern für zementgebundene Werkstoffe - Studien über mineralgebundene Holzwerkstoffe, VI. Mitteilung |journal=Holzforschung |date=January 1964 |volume=18 |issue=1–2 |pages=53–59 |doi=10.1515/hfsg.1964.18.1-2.53 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weatherwax |first1=R C |last2=Tarkow |first2=H |date=1964 |title=Effect of Wood on Setting of Portland Cement |journal=Forest Products Journal |volume=14 |pages=567–568 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hachmi |first1=M. |last2=Moslemi |first2=A. A. |last3=Campbell |first3=A. G. |title=A new technique to classify the compatibility of wood with cement |journal=Wood Science and Technology |date=October 1990 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=345–354 |doi=10.1007/BF00227055 }}</ref> the comparison of the mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes<ref>{{cite journal |id={{INIST|8084764}} |last1=Lee |first1=A. W. C |last2=Hong |first2=Zhongli |title=Compressive strength of cylindrical samples as an indicator of wood-cement compatibility |journal=Forest Products Journal |date=1986 |volume=36 |issue=11–12 |pages=87–90 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Demirbaş |first1=A |last2=Aslan |first2=A |title=Effects of ground hazelnut shell, wood, and tea waste on the mechanical properties of cement22Communicated by A.K. Chatterjee |journal=Cement and Concrete Research |date=August 1998 |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=1101–1104 |doi=10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00064-7 }}</ref> and the visual assessment of microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ahn |first1=W.Y. |last2=Moslemi |first2=A.A. |title=SEM examination of wood-Portland cement bonds |journal=Wood Science |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=77–82 }}</ref> It has been found that the hydration test by measuring the change in hydration temperature with time is the most convenient method. Recently, Karade et al.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karade |first1=S. R. |last2=Irle |first2=M. |last3=Maher |first3=K. |title=Assessment of Wood-Cement Compatibility: A New Approach |journal=Holzforschung |date=30 October 2003 |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=672–680 |doi=10.1515/HF.2003.101 }}</ref> have reviewed these methods of compatibility assessment and suggested a method based on the ‘maturity concept’ i.e. taking in consideration both time and temperature of cement hydration reaction. Recent work on aging of lignocellulosic materials in the cement paste showed hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lignin<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Juan |last2=Kasal |first2=Bohumil |title=The immediate and short-term degradation of the wood surface in a cement environment measured by AFM |journal=Materials and Structures |date=September 2022 |volume=55 |issue=7 |doi=10.1617/s11527-022-01988-8 |doi-access=free }}</ref> that affects the interface between particles or fibers and concrete and causes degradation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Juan |last2=Kasal |first2=Bohumil |title=Degradation Mechanism of the Wood-Cell Wall Surface in a Cement Environment Measured by Atomic Force Microscopy |journal=Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering |date=July 2023 |volume=35 |issue=7 |doi=10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-14910 }}</ref>

Bricks were laid in [[lime mortar]] from the time of the Romans until supplanted by Portland cement [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] in the early 20th century. [[Concrete masonry unit|Cement blocks]] also sometimes are filled with [[grout]] or covered with a [[parge coat]].

===Concrete===
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[[File:FalkirkWheelSide 2004 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|right|[[Falkirk Wheel]]]]
[[Concrete]] is a [[composite material|composite]] building material made from the combination of [[aggregate (composite)|aggregate]] and a binder such as [[cement]]. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally [[gravel]] and [[sand]]), [[portland cement]] and [[water (molecule)|water]].

After mixing, the cement [[Hydration reaction|hydrates]] and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term "concrete".

For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low [[tensile strength]], it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as [[rebar]]s). This strengthened concrete is then referred to as [[reinforced concrete]]. In order to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building material in the modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport. Recent advancements, such as [[insulating concrete form]]s, combine the concrete forming and other construction steps (installation of insulation). All materials must be taken in required proportions as described in standards.

===Fabric===
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The tent is the home of choice among nomadic groups all over the world. Two well-known types include the conical [[teepee]] and the circular [[yurt]]. The tent has been revived as a major construction technique with the development of [[tensile architecture]] and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as [[Textile|fabric]] membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables, rigid or internal, or by air pressure.

===Foam===
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[[File:Celotex thermax foamed plastic sheets.jpg|thumb|upright|Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for [[Mortar (firestop)|firestop mortar]] at CIBC bank in [[Toronto]].]]
Recently, synthetic [[polystyrene]] or [[polyurethane]] foam has been used in combination with structural materials, such as concrete. It is lightweight, easily shaped, and an excellent insulator. Foam is usually used as part of a [[structural insulated panel]], wherein the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement or insulating concrete forms.

===Glass===
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[[Glassmaking]] is considered an art form as well as an industrial process or material.

Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. Glass panes provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside.

Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and [[silicate]]s, in a very hot fire stove called a [[kiln]], and is very brittle. Additives are often included the mixture used to produce glass with shades of colors or various characteristics (such as [[bulletproof glass]] or lightbulbs).

The use of glass in architectural buildings has become very popular in the modern culture. Glass "[[curtain wall (architecture)|curtain walls]]" can be used to cover the entire facade of a building, or it can be used to span over a wide roof structure in a "[[space frame]]". These uses though require some sort of frame to hold sections of glass together, as glass by itself is too brittle and would require an overly large kiln to be used to span such large areas by itself.

[[Glass brick]]s were invented in the early 20th century.

===Gypsum concrete===
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[[Gypsum concrete]] is a mixture of [[gypsum]] plaster and fibreglass [[roving]]s. Although plaster and fibres [[fibrous plaster]] have been used for many years, especially for ceilings, it was not until the early 1990s that serious studies of the strength and qualities of a walling system [[Rapidwall]], using a mixture of gypsum plaster and 300mm plus fibreglass rovings, were investigated. With an abundance of gypsum (naturally occurring and by-product chemical FGD and phospho gypsums) available worldwide, Gypsum concrete-based building products, which are fully recyclable, offer significant environmental benefits.

=== Metal ===
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[[File:20130816 Belfry of St Laurentius Ahrweiler.jpg|thumb|upright|Copper belfry of St. Laurentius church, [[Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler]] ]]
[[Metal]] is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as [[skyscraper]]s, or as an external surface covering. There are many types of [[Architectural metals|metals]] used for building. Metal figures quite prominently in [[prefabricated]] structures such as the [[Quonset hut]], and can be seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed for the building industries. [[Corrosion]] is metal's prime enemy when it comes to longevity.
* [[Steel]] is a metal [[alloy]] whose major component is [[iron]], and is the usual choice for metal structural building materials. It is strong, flexible, and if refined well and/or [[Corrosion prevention|treated]] lasts a long time.
* The lower [[density]] and better [[corrosion]] resistance of [[aluminium]] alloys and [[tin]] sometimes overcome their greater [[cost]].
* [[Copper]] is a valued building material because of its advantageous properties (see: [[Copper in architecture]]). These include corrosion resistance, durability, low thermal movement, light weight, radio frequency shielding, lightning protection, sustainability, recyclability, and a wide range of finishes. Copper is incorporated into roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, wall cladding, building expansion joints, and indoor design elements.
* Other metals used include [[Chrome plating|chrome]], [[gold]], [[silver]], and [[titanium]]. Titanium can be used for structural purposes, but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and silver are used as decoration, because these materials are expensive and lack structural qualities such as tensile strength or hardness.

===Plastics===
{{See also|Microplastics#Construction and renovation|Microplastics and human health}}
[[File:Piping floor penetrations nortown casitas.jpg|thumb|left|Plastic [[pipe (material)|pipes]] penetrating a [[concrete]] floor in a Canadian highrise apartment building]]
The term ''plastics'' covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic [[organic chemistry|organic]] [[condensation reaction|condensation]] or [[polymerization]] products that can be molded or extruded into objects, films, or [[synthetic fiber|fibers]]. Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of [[plasticity (physics)|plasticity]]. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today. [[High performance plastics]] such as ETFE have become an ideal building material due to its high abrasion resistance and chemical inertness. Notable buildings that feature it include: the [[Beijing National Aquatics Center]] and the [[Eden Project]] biomes.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fluorotherm.com/the-advantages-of-etfe-fluoropolymer-tubing/|title = The Advantages of ETFE Fluoropolymer Tubing|date = April 1, 2015|publisher = Fluorotherm}}</ref>

Around twenty percent of all plastics and seventy percent of all [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC) produced in the world each year are used by the construction industry.<ref name=rics2023>{{cite web | last=Smethurst | first=Tom | title=Why we must limit use of construction plastics | website=RICS | date=18 May 2023 | url=https://ww3.rics.org/uk/en/journals/built-environment-journal/plastics-construction-materials-health.html | access-date=5 Dec 2024}}</ref><ref name=sage2022>{{cite journal | last1=Hernandez | first1=German | last2=Low | first2=Joanne | last3=Nand | first3=Ashveen | last4=Bu | first4=Alex | last5=Wallis | first5=Shannon L | last6=Kestle | first6=Linda | last7=Berry | first7=Terri-Ann | title=Quantifying and managing plastic waste generated from building construction in Auckland, New Zealand | journal=Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=41 | issue=1 | date=13 Jun 2022 | issn=0734-242X | doi=10.1177/0734242x221105425 | doi-access=free | pages=205–213| hdl=10652/5874 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is predicted that much more will be produced and used in the future.<ref name=rics2023 /> "In Europe, approximately 20% of all plastics produced are used in the construction sector including different classes of plastics, waste and nanomaterials."<ref name=sage2022 /> There are both direct use (construction materials containing plastics) and indirect use (packaging of construction materials) in different parts of the building processes.<ref name=sage2022 />

===Papers and membranes===
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Building papers and membranes are used for many reasons in construction. One of the oldest building papers is [[red rosin paper]] which was known to be in use before 1850 and was used as an underlayment in exterior walls, roofs, and floors and for protecting a jobsite during construction. [[Tar paper]] was invented late in the 19th century and was used for similar purposes as rosin paper and for [[built-up roof|gravel roofs]]. Tar paper has largely fallen out of use supplanted by asphalt [[felt paper]]. Felt paper has been supplanted in some uses by synthetic underlayments, particularly in roofing by synthetic underlayments and siding by [[housewrap]]s.

There are a wide variety of [[damp proofing]] and [[waterproofing]] membranes used for roofing, [[basement waterproofing]], and [[geomembrane]]s.

===Ceramics===
Fired clay [[brick]]s have been used since the time of the Romans. Special [[tile]]s are used for roofing, siding, flooring, ceilings, pipes, flue liners, and more.{{cn|date=December 2024}}