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Containerization
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== Issues == === Hazards === Containers are actively used for smuggling and trafficking illicit goods and people. Drugs, antiques, weapons, undeclared merchandise, jewellery, human beings, wildlife, counterfeit products, as well as chemical, radioactive and biological materials, are illegally transported via containers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Bueger |first1=Christian |title=Understanding maritime security |last2=Edmunds |first2=Timothy |date=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-776718-4 |series=Oxford scholarship online Political Science |location=New York, NY}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greenland |first=Fiona |date=2017-11-07 |title=Free ports and steel containers: The <i>corpora delicti</i> of artefact trafficking |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02757206.2017.1397648 |journal=History and Anthropology |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=15β20 |doi=10.1080/02757206.2017.1397648 |issn=0275-7206|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-22 |title=Inspection of shipping containers at Belgium port turns up 4.78 tons of cocaine, weapons and $193,000 in cash β CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/cocaine-shipping-containers-antwerp-port-belgium/ |access-date=2024-12-22 |publisher=CBS News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moloney |first1=Georgia Kate |last2=Chaber |first2=Anne-Lise |date=2024-04-03 |title=Where are you hiding the pangolins? screening tools to detect illicit contraband at international borders and their adaptability for illegal wildlife trafficking |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=e0299152 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0299152 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=10990205 |pmid=38568991|bibcode=2024PLoSO..1999152M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-12 |title=Wildlife Trafficking: Why battling this illicit trade is crucial {{!}} ICE |url=https://www.ice.gov/features/wildlife |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=ice.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oral |first1=Ferhan |last2=Paker |first2=Serim |date=2023-12-20 |title=Risk Assessment for Maritime Container Transportation Security |url=https://doi.org/10.4274/jems.2023.80148 |journal=Journal of ETA Maritime Science |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=304β316 |doi=10.4274/jems.2023.80148 |issn=2147-2955|doi-access=free }}</ref> Additionally, there are concerns about terrorists using containers to transport weapons of mass destruction (WMD). <ref>{{Citation |last=Bowley |first=Robin |title=Preventing terrorist targeting of ships |date=2022-12-23 |work=Preventing Terrorist Attacks at Sea |pages=84β124 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429320958-4 |access-date=2024-12-22 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780429320958-4 |isbn=978-0-429-32095-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, these concerns remain hypothetical.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lehr |first=Peter |title=Routledge handbook of naval strategy and security |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-1-315-73257-2 |editor-last=Bruns |editor-first=Sebastian |series=Routledge handbooks |location=London New York, N.Y |pages=202β214 |chapter=(No) princes of the sea: reflections on maritime terrorism |editor-last2=Krause |editor-first2=Joachim}}</ref> There are several ways in which illicit goods are smuggled. One method involves forging documents to make a container appear as legal cargo.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Raymond |first=Catherine Zara |date=2006 |title=Maritime Terrorism in Southeast Asia: A Risk Assessment |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550500383225 |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=239β257 |doi=10.1080/09546550500383225 |hdl=10220/39829 |issn=0954-6553|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Another method is inserting illegal goods into a legitimate shipment, mixing legal and illegal items together.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |last1=McNicholas |first1=M.A. |title=Drug Smuggling via Maritime Cargo, Containers, and Vessels |date=2016 |work=Maritime Security |pages=207β260 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-803672-3.00007-8 |access-date=2024-12-22 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-803672-3 |last2=Draughon |first2=G.R.|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-803672-3.00007-8 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> For example, in 2024, several shipments of drugs, either disguised as banana cargo or mixed with legal banana shipments, were discovered in Germany, Greece, Spain and Great Britain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Germany: Hamburg police seize 2 tons of cocaine worth β¬100M β DW β 09/27/2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/germany-hamburg-police-seize-2-tons-of-cocaine-worth-100m/a-70347569 |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=dw.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Peachey |first=Paul |date=2024-08-06 |title=Greek anti-drugs officers seize cocaine hidden in container ship banana cargo |url=https://www.tradewindsnews.com/containers/greek-anti-drugs-officers-seize-cocaine-hidden-in-container-ship-banana-cargo/2-1-1688064 |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=TradeWinds {{!}} Latest shipping and maritime news |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-06 |title=Police seize record cocaine haul in banana shipment in Spain; woman arrested and 2 suspects at large β CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/record-cocaine-haul-banana-shipment-spain/ |access-date=2024-12-22 |publisher=CBS News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Stephen |date=2024-02-23 |title=U.K. police find $568 million of cocaine hidden in bananas, shattering drug-seizure record β CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/568-million-cocaine-hidden-bananas-record-drug-seizure-uk-southampton/ |access-date=2024-12-22 |publisher=CBS News |language=en-US}}</ref> Criminal groups use legitimate fruit businesses as fronts for their narcotics operations, making fruit cargo a common method for concealing drugs.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Decoding the EU's most threatening criminal networks |date=2024 |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |isbn=978-92-95236-25-7 |editor-last=Europol |location=Luxembourg}}</ref> Trafficking in wildlife parts, such as ivory, frequently involves altering the appearance of the goods. For instance, ivory has been known to be cut into the shape of chocolate bars or painted the colour of wood to avoid detection during X-ray inspections.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rodway |first=Alexander |date=2024-10-30 |title=How giant rodents could rat on wildlife traffickers |url=https://edition.cnn.com/science/giant-african-rat-wildlife-traffickers-spc/index.html |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Additionally, containers can be physically modified to hide illegal parcels, such as through the use of fake walls, secret compartments, hollowed-out rails, support beams and doors.<ref name=":1" /> The lack of capacity at ports to inspect containers increases the likelihood of smuggled goods going undetected. In African ports, especially West Africa, where most drug routes converge, only about 2% of all containers are inspected.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lucia |first=Bird |date=21 April 2021 |title=West Africa's Cocaine Corridor: Building a subregional response |url=https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/west-africas-cocaine-corridor/ |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=Global Initiative |language=en}}</ref> Similarly, European ports check just 2β10% of incoming containers, leaving the majority unscreened and creating opportunities for trafficking.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Criminal Networks in EU Ports: Risks and challenges for Law Enforcement |url=https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-events/publications/criminal-networks-in-eu-ports-risks-and-challenges-for-law-enforcement |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=Europol |language=en}}</ref> Nevertheless, there are a number of security measures in place, notably the [[Container Security Initiative]] (CSI), a post-9/11 US-led programme. This initiative aims to pre-screen high-risk cargo before it reaches US territory. One of its primary goals is to prevent the smuggling of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Yi-Chih |date=2010 |title=Impact of the container security initiative on Taiwan's shipping industry |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2010.524737 |journal=Maritime Policy & Management |volume=37 |issue=7 |pages=699β722 |doi=10.1080/03088839.2010.524737 |issn=0308-8839|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Citation |last1=Zhang |first1=Xufan |title=Maritime Security Measures and the Container Security Initiative (CSI) |date=2019 |work=Maritime Container Port Security |pages=13β57 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03825-0_2 |access-date=2024-12-22 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-03824-3 |last2=Roe |first2=Michael|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-03825-0_2 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although the programme was initiated by the United States, by 2007, some 20 countries had signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the US, leading to the implementation of CSI measures at 58 ports around the world. The CSI system includes non-intrusive pre-screening methods, such as X-ray and radiation screening, for high-risk cargo destined for the United States. As a result, more than 80% of containerised cargo bound for the United States is pre-screened.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> === Empty containers === Containers are intended to be used constantly, being loaded with new cargo for a new destination soon after emptied of previous cargo. This is not always possible, and in some cases, the cost of transporting an empty container to a place where it can be used is considered to be higher than the worth of the used container. [[Shipping line]]s and container leasing companies have become expert at repositioning empty containers from areas of low or no demand, such as the US West Coast, to areas of high demand, such as China. Repositioning within the port hinterland has also been the focus of recent logistics optimization work. Damaged or retired containers may be recycled in the form of [[shipping container architecture]], or the steel content salvaged. In the summer of 2010, a worldwide shortage of containers developed as shipping increased after the recession, while new container production had largely ceased.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.universalcargo.com/blog/bid/49979/Shipping-Container-Shortage-Pushing-Up-Prices |title=Shipping Container Shortage Pushing Up Prices |website=Universal Cargo |date=2010-08-19 |access-date=2011-11-28}}</ref> === Loss at sea === [[File:Im Orkan, Container ΓΌber Bord - Nordatlantik im Winter 1980.jpg|thumb|<small>In a [[hurricane]] containers falling overboard β [[North Atlantic]] in winter 1980</small>]] Containers occasionally fall from ships, usually during storms. According to media sources, between 2,000<ref name=TTlost>[http://www.ttclub.com/TTCLUB/PubArc.nsf/D5E4C4B3A805731980256792004C617E/02CE747115C182F780256A6500596BF5?OpenDocument Containers Overboard!]{{dead link|date=September 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} ''[http://www.ttclub.com/ttclub/public.nsf/html/MGRY-6VLER3?OpenDocument TT Club] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304184259/http://www.ttclub.com/ttclub/public.nsf/html/MGRY-6VLER3?OpenDocument |date=March 4, 2011}}'' (Maritime insurers). Accessed: 26 February 2011.</ref> and 10,000 containers are lost at sea each year.<ref>Podsada, Janice. (2001-06-19) 'Lost Sea Cargo: Beach Bounty or Junk?', ''National Geographic News''.[https://web.archive.org/web/20010703073644/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/06/0619_seacargo.html] Retrieved 2007-04-17</ref> The [[World Shipping Council]] states in a survey among freight companies that this claim is grossly excessive and calculated an average of 350 containers to be lost at sea each year, or 675 if including catastrophic events.<ref name="WSClost">[http://www.worldshipping.org/industry-issues/safety/Containers_Overboard__Final.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827190457/http://www.worldshipping.org/industry-issues/safety/Containers_Overboard__Final.pdf|date=2013-08-27}} ''[http://www.worldshipping.org]'' (World Shipping Council). Accessed: 11 July 2013.</ref> For instance, on November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore<ref>{{cite web |author=Β© November 30, 2006 |url=http://hamptonroads.com/node/189201 |title=Photos: Spilled Doritos chips wash up on Outer Banks | HamptonRoads.com | PilotOnline.com |publisher=HamptonRoads.com |date=2006-11-30 |access-date=2011-11-28 |archive-date=2011-12-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213005134/http://hamptonroads.com/node/189201 |url-status=dead }}</ref> on the Outer Banks of [[North Carolina]], along with thousands of bags of its cargo of [[Doritos|Doritos Chips]]. Containers lost in rough waters are smashed by cargo and waves, and often sink quickly.<ref name=TTlost/> Although not all containers sink, they seldom float very high out of the water, making them a shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has provided [[oceanographer]]s with unexpected opportunities to track global [[ocean current]]s, notably a cargo of [[Friendly Floatees]].<ref>[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rubber-duckies-map-the-world/ "Rubber Duckies Map The World"] β [[CBS News]] β July 31, 2003</ref> In 2007 the [[International Chamber of Shipping]] and the [[World Shipping Council]] began work on a code of practice for container storage, including crew training on [[parametric rolling]], safer stacking, the marking of containers, and security for above-deck cargo in heavy swell.<ref name=lash>Murdoch & Tozer. [http://www.standard-club.com/docs/CTCMG2CSAW_disclaimer.pdf A Master's guide to Container Securing] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716130339/http://www.standard-club.com/docs/CTCMG2CSAW_disclaimer.pdf |date=July 16, 2011}} ''[[Lloyd's Register]] & Standard P&I Club''. Accessed: 26 February 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news | title =Banana box slip a worry | work =Lloyd's List Daily Commercial News | publisher =Informa Australia | date =2008-02-07 | url =http://www.lloydslistdcn.com.au/informaoz/LLDCN/home.jsp?source=fresh | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20051216222205/http://www.lloydslistdcn.com.au/informaoz/LLDCN/home.jsp?source=fresh | url-status =dead | archive-date =2005-12-16 | access-date =2008-02-14}}</ref> In 2011, the [[MV Rena]] ran aground off the coast of New Zealand. As the ship listed, some containers were lost, while others were held on board at a precarious angle. === Trade union challenges === Some of the biggest battles in the container revolution were waged in Washington, D.C.. Intermodal shipping got a huge boost in the early 1970s, when carriers won permission to quote combined rail-ocean rates. Later, non-vessel-operating [[common carrier]]s won a long court battle with a US Supreme Court decision against contracts that attempted to require that union labor be used for stuffing and stripping containers at off-pier locations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/854/854.F2d.1338.82-1347.87-1370.html |title=854 F.2d 1338, 129 L.R.R.M. (BNA) 2001, 1988 A.M.C. 2409, 272 U.S.App.D.C. 129, 57 USLW 2147, 109 Lab.Cas. P 10,681, NEW YORK SHIPPING ASSOCIATION, INC., International Longshoremen's Association, AFL-CIO, Council of North Atlantic Shipping Associations, Atlantic Container Line, Ltd., Dart Containerline Company, Limited, Hapag-Lloyd Aktiengesellschaft, "Italia" S.P.A.N., Nedlloyd Lines B.V., Puerto Rico Maritime Shipping Authority, Sea-Land Service, Inc., Trans Freight Lines, Inc., and United States Lines, Inc., Petitioners, v. Federal Maritime Commission and United States of America, Respondents. New York Shipping Association, Inc., et al., Petitioners, v. Federal Maritime Commission and United States of America, Respondents, American Trucking Assoc., Inc., American Warehousemen's Assoc., West Gulf Maritime Assoc., National Customs Brokers & Forwarders Association of America, Inc., International Association of NVOCCs, et al., Intervenors. Nos. 82-1347, 87-1370. United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit. Argued Dec. 17, 1987. Decided Aug. 9, 1988 |publisher=Ftp.resource.org |access-date=2011-11-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093543/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/854/854.F2d.1338.82-1347.87-1370.html |archive-date=2012-03-25}}</ref> {{anchor|Pests}} === As pest vector === Containers are often [[infestation|infested]] with [[pest (organism)|pest]]s.<ref name="IPPC-khapra" /><ref name="IPPC" /> Pest [[introduced species|introductions]] are significantly clustered around ports, and containers are a common source of such successful pest transfers.<ref name="IPPC-khapra" /><ref name="IPPC" /> The IPPC [[Sea Container Task Force]] (SCTF) promulgates the [[Cargo Transport Units Code]] (CTU), prescribed [[pesticide]]s and other standards (see {{section link||Other container system standards}}) and recommendations for use in container decontamination, inspection and quarantine.<ref name="SCTF-final" /> The SCTF also provides the English translation of the National Standard of China ([[GB/T 39919-2021]]).<ref name="SCTF-final" />
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